Preface
Jing Bo

I venture to consider that the vast space between heaven and earth is so exten- 867b sive, and that the dissimilarities of human beings endowed with consciousness and intelligence are so variant, that the Talk on Heaven could not trace their limits, nor could the Comprehensive Map of the Earth distinguish their original sources. From this we may know that it is impossible to relate all the places that are not mentioned in the regional records and lie beyond the reach of the influence and education of the imperial court.

As regards India, it has a long history since its establishment as a country. There saints and sages spring up generation after generation, and the morality of kindness and justice is their common custom. But in the past we never had contacts with that country, and its territory is not conjoined with the Middle Kingdom. It is neither recorded in the Shanhai jing (Book on Mountains and Seas} nor mentioned in the Wanghui plan (“Chapter on the Royal Meeting”). Although Zhang Qian, the Marquis of Bowang, opened the road to the Western Regions, he was inspired in vain by the sight at Bactria of bamboo sticks produced at Qionglai Mountain in China. The Kunming route was obstructed by the mountainous region of Yuexi in the southwest, and so Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty could only excavate the Divine Lake at Chang’an to train his navy, but to no effect. Therefore even though astrological signs had shown the good omen of the birth of the Buddha, his abstruse teachings were impeded from being introduced to China for a thousand years. Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty dreamed of a golden figure with a sunlike halo behind its head, but the divine light of Buddhism was still enshrouded in secret ten thousand li away.

When Cai Yin was dispatched to the Western Regions in search of the Buddhist religion, he invited Kasyapa-Matanga to Luoyang with Buddhist scriptures, which were preserved at the Rock Chamber, but these were not as profound as the texts kept in the Naga Palace in India. The Buddha’s image was drawn at the Terrace of Coolness, but it was not as fine as the statue erected at Vulture Peak.

After that the governance of the state became faulty and eunuchs and people of ignoble character swayed the realm. They brought disaster upon the Eastern Capital and disrupted the country. The Empress and Empress Dowager started disturbances and split the nation, as one tears a piece of silk into pieces. Political institutions and decrees died out at Hangu Pass and Luoyang, and beacon fires were set to give the alarm at the strategic watchtowers. Thus the cities became blockaded by fortresses at the four suburbs. India was separated from here by a very great distance.

There were, however, occasional inquisitive travelers who visited that country to hunt for novelty. Although they have left us some records, they did not make a full account of the products and topography of the places they visited. They merely quoted passages from books of strange stories and did not make a thorough study of the truth of bhutatathata (absolute truth).

Even at the time of the Sui dynasty, when the empire was unified and the 867c domain considerably expanded, people could only gaze at the sea in the West and regret that they were unable to proceed further. They had to ponder over the situation while looking at the country of Dongli (Tamralipti?). It is true that many a man has hoisted banners and flags outside the Yumen Pass, but no record can be found about anyone who successfully crossed the Pamir Range. How could anyone ride through the Snow Mountains and halt for a while beside the dragon lake? This was really because the virtue of the Sui riders was not pervasive and their prestige not far-reaching.

The House of Great Tang, holding sway over the empire, has opened up the world for the initiation of imperial prospects. The comets [of rebels] have been swept away and the fortune of the nation has been brightened. Its achievements are as great as the creation of the universe, and its brilliance is equal to the light of the sun and the moon. All people are grateful for having gained a new life, as if they had been saved from the mouths of jackals and wolves. Every family is glad about having a new lease on life, as if their souls had returned from the sphere of ghosts and demons. Alien residents of different nationalities reside on Gao Street in the capital, and all distant and desolate places are included in the imperial territory. It may be said that the Ten Spirits Islands are parts of the Imperial Garden, and that the four seas are regarded as its ponds and pools. The Five Emperors of old are slighted and the monarchs of ancient ages are held in scorn.

Having entered the gate of the Dharma in his childhood, Dharma Master [Xuanzang] regretted that he had not been to the Jetavana Garden; when he grew up he thought about the traces left by the Buddha and eagerly looked forward to visiting the Deer Park. Thus he lifted up his robe to start the journey to the Land of Purity; this was his long-cherished desire.
At a time when the general mood of honesty was prevailing westward, and in the season when the climate was suitable for officials to take homebound trips to the east,

he started his journey, with his pewter staff in hand, in the third year of Zhenguan. Under the spiritual protection of his ancestors, he was able to reach lands with various customs, and he met with many dangers that he eventually weathered safely. With the aid of deities he traversed risky paths, from which he barely escaped with his life. He suffered the abrupt changes of scorching heat and bitter cold, passing through many places before he reached his destination.

If we speak of inquiring into the truth, it depends on whether one sees or does not see the difference between the theories of emptiness and existence; research into the sublime teachings lies in whether one has or has not heard about the doctrine of birth and death. Doubts about the sea of truth must be solved to enable all living beings to awaken from the stream of delusion. He collected various scriptures, of which not a single word he did not understand, and he visited all the holy sites, none of which did he not see in person. After having traveled for many years, he returned home

and reached Chang’an in the first month of the nineteenth year [of Zhenguan], bringing back six hundred fifty-seven books, which he translated into Chinese by imperial decree.

Dharma Master [Xuanzang] personally visited one hundred ten countries and heard information about twenty-eight countries. Some of them are mentioned in the historical records of previous dynasties, while others are known to us for the first time in the present age. All of them are influenced by the spirit of harmony and enjoy the benevolence of Great Tang. They have paid homage and submitted to the authority of the Emperor, beseeching him to dispatch officials to reform their language. They climbed mountainous paths to come to offer tribute, and they were so merrily entertained at the imperial court that they clapped their hands; dressed in the costume of the Tang, they formed into groups.

Regarding their different products and local conditions, as well as their social customs and the mountains and rivers of their lands, we have to refer to their books for ancient times; for recent times we can inquire of elderly people. Distant are those alien countries but here they appear clearly before our eyes. We need not take the trouble to write letters to find out details that are already written on white silk and entitled The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions in twelve fascicles kept in one cloth slipcase.

I humbly consider that the information provided in this book is quite detailed, while certain trivial matters and minor events will, I hope, make up what is missing in former historical works.

This is the preface composed by Jing Bo, Assistant Writer of the Imperial Secretarial Department.

Preface
Yu Zhining, Duke of Yanguo and
Left Premier of the Board of Ministers

As the ray emitted from the white curl between the Buddha’s eyebrows illu- 868a minates the whole earth, so the sweet dew of his teachings spreads over the great chiliocosm. Like a golden mirror that shines brightly, the great order of the Tang empire prevails over the whole domain. Having manifested the three realms of the world, the buddha-dharma may be considered the most venerable of all religions. With the light of virtue shining upon the four quarters, the Tang empire possesses the largest territory in the world. After the shadow of the Buddha, the Sun of Wisdom, disappeared, his teachings were introduced to China in the East, and the Way of the Emperor was so glorious that his moral influence reached far to the West.

The Tripitaka Master of Ci’en Monastery is named Xuanzang and has the family name of Chen; his ancestors were natives of Yingchuan. When the Yellow Emperor ascended the throne at Youxiong, he controlled Huazhu and established the Chen family. Emperor Shun threw open the doors at the four sides of his audience hall to receive the princes and dukes under his sovereignty, and he laid the foundation of his lofty structure even when he was farming at Lishan. King Wu of the Zhou dynasty conferred the fief of Chen on a descendant of Emperor Shun and made his offspring one of the three respectable families. Chen Ping’s six ingenious stratagems played a glorious part in the establishment of the Han dynasty, and the petitions submitted by Chen Chong and his son Chen Zhong to the emperors of the Later Han dynasty were like brilliant moonlight shining upon the world after sunset. When Chen Shi and his sons and nephews visited Xun Shu and his sons, Jupiter, the star of virtue, appeared in the sky to mark the meeting of virtuous people of great talent. Prominent figures emerged in the Chen clan in successive generations, like huge fishes swimming freely side by side in the sea, or enormous rocs flying high with wings fully extended. By their traditional virtue, not only did the stock of the Chen family prosper but also its branches flourished as those of a distinguished clan.

The Master was born under the favorable auspices of the light of harmony and the appearance of the Star of Virtue. He has deep roots with exuberant foliage, and the source of his Way is profound and long-lasting. In his infancy he had a lofty bearing like the glow of the rising sun and moon, and in childhood he proved to be a good son, as admirable and fragrant as orchids and osmanthus. When he had grown up he studied well the ancient books and his fame spread all over the country, so much so that the local governments of various places vied with each other in inviting him to serve in their offices. He could discern truth from falsehood at an early age and always had compassion and wisdom. He longed to gain a clear understanding of truth and sighed at the limitations of human life. He regarded the red silk ribbon attached to the official seal and the purple belts worn by government officials as snares of the material world, and he thought that the precious vehicles, the ekayana (One Vehicle), and the esoteric texts were truly the ways leading one out of the world. Therefore he despised all worldly things as dust and rubbish, and talked only about serene and broadminded principles.

His elder brother, Venerable Changjie, a pillar of the gate of Buddhism, was as energetic as a naga (dragon) in practicing the Way, and his wisdom might be compared with that of Sariputra of yore. Both those who held office at court and those who were not in office respected him for his good demeanor and learning, and his repute and literary talent were admired by people both at home and abroad. The two brothers had a deep feeling of fraternity in concordance with the ethical relationships between members of a family. The Master was diligent in serving his elder brother and in receiving instruction from him without wasting a single moment. His accomplishments in learning qualified him to be a Chief Monk and thus occupy an outstanding position in a monastery. His virtue coincided with the principle of the Middle Way, and he was well known among his fellow monks. He galloped along the path of equality and comprehended the nine classes of the Buddhist texts, his scope of learning being as extensive as the marshland ofYunmeng. He rowed his way in the sea of abstruse teachings, looking down upon the Four Vedas, which appeared to him insignificant. After that he traveled for several years to various places to attend lectures on Buddhist theories, until he succeeded in his studies and gained achievement in learning. 

In the remote past, at the beginning of time, the sun and moon shone upon the Terrace of Spirituality, and Yang Xiong deliberated about the Way of Heaven, which called for deep thought in one’s mind. Then the teachings of the Buddha were gradually revealed, waiting to be spread far and wide. Holding the jade handle of his chowrie (fly-whisk), the Master waved off the mist on the sea to unveil the billows, just like an experienced wheelwright who knows the essence of his craft or a zither maker who understands the knack of producing musical instruments. He was so well informed that he instructed people with the fluency of water pouring out of a bottle, and he traveled alone far away from his native place in a small boat. While he was still at home, he defeated a boastful man who bragged that he had to wear a copper belt around his waist lest his abdomen should burst under the pressure of the knowledge he had in his possession; when he came to the region of Shu he informed his elder brother that he had the desire to travel abroad. People far and near said to him, “We have heard that the Xun family of old had eight prominent sons, and now we see that the Chen clan has two outstanding brothers. It is true that many distinguished persons have emerged in the region between Ruzhou and the Ying River!”

From his youth until he arrived at adulthood, the Master engaged himself in studying abstruse Buddhist books. Well-known scholars and predecessors grasped the theories of different sects of Buddhism, performing detailed research into side issues and forgetting about the root, plucking flowers while neglecting the fruit. Thus they gave rise to the southern and northern schools with various tenets and contradictory arguments. In the long-standing theoretical contentions he was at a loss what to do, and feared that the translators might have made mistakes and caused confusion, so that he might not be able to get a thorough understanding of the ultimate truth. With this view in mind, he wished to read all Buddhist texts at the Naga Palace in India.

At a time when the country was most prosperous, and equipped with unparalleled virtue, he started his journey to the remote lands carrying his pewter staff and whisked the dust offhis robe. In this manner he left Chang’an behind to proceed with big strides toward the Pamir Range. In his long journey over land and water he experienced all sorts of hardships and risks. He considered the journey undertaken by the Marquis of Bowang not a long one and regarded Faxian as having traveled only in a limited area.

Wherever he went he studied the local dialect and conducted research into the profound theories there; he probed into the essence of the Buddhist teachings in a marvelous way. Thus he was eloquent in debate and became famous in India, and he brought back to China the Buddhist scriptures written on palm leaves.

Emperor Taizong, who ascended the precious throne as a gold wheel king, was a person of elegant character. He granted an interview to the Master in the inner chamber of the imperial palace, showing the consideration due to a learned scholar, and listened attentively to what he said. He personally wrote decrees to express his friendly feeling to the Master and sent palace messengers incessantly to inquire after his health. At the request of the Master, the Emperor composed the Preface to the Holy Teachings o f the Tripitaka in seven hundred and eighty characters. When the reigning Emperor [Gao- zong] was crown prince and living at the Spring Palace, he wrote A Record Relating the Preface to the Holy Teach ings of the Tripitaka in five hundred and seventy-nine characters. If the Master had not cast the light of his prestige upon Kukkutarama Monastery and had not spread his fame over Vulture Peak in India, how could the emperors have condescended to write such ornamental compositions for the commendation of a contemporary scholar?

Under imperial edict, the Master translated six hundred and fifty-seven Sanskrit texts into Chinese. Having witnessed the strange customs of distant lands, the typical scenes of remote countries, the special products of different places, the peculiar orders of human relations, the regions where the Chinese almanac has been adopted, and the localities where Chinese culture and influence have reached, he wrote The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions in twelve fascicles, in which he cited passages from profound and obscure texts and included comprehensive investigations and detailed textual researches done in such a way as to render it a work of lasting value.

By counting the grand strategies of successive emperors and reading the records of remote events of the past monarchs, we know that when Emperor Fuxi first ascended the throne and when the Yellow Emperor began to rule over the country, they managed the affairs of the people and divided the cotry into administrative regions. When Emperor Yao of Tang received the Mandate of Heaven to be the sovereign his glory reached the four quarters, and when Emperor Shun of Yu accepted the map of the empire his virtue spread over all the nine districts. Since then only the memoranda recording past events have been transmitted, and if one wishes to hear from the former sages he or she can only listen to the historians who recorded their words.
How can these be compared with our time, when good government prevails in the empire under a monarch who reigns without ruling?

As to our great Tang dynasty, it has held sway over the empire in accordance with the Mandate of Heaven; taking advantage of the times, it has controlled the power of governance. The Emperor has united the six quarters into one domain and filled it with his glory, and he has succeeded to the virtuous deeds of the three ancient emperors as the fourth one in order, illuminating the world with his light. His subtle influence has permeated widely and his auspicious edification has extended far. He possesses the power of covering and carrying all things like heaven and earth, and he acts with the functions of both the stimulating wind and the moistening rain. With the Yi tribe at the eastern border coming to offer tribute and the Rong people of the western frontier arriving to pledge allegiance, he has founded an imperial heritage for his posterity; and in quelling rebellion to restore order, he certainly has surpassed former kings. His great deeds have included all those achieved by previous dynasties. Now the whole empire is in such a uniformity that we use the same characters in writing and our carriages have standard wheels to go in the same ruts. This is the marvelous achievement of his consummate government. If I did not mention all these points in my Record, I should have nowhere to praise his great exploits, and if I did not publish them abroad, how could I shed light on his profuse merits?

Wherever I went in my journey I inquired about the local conditions and customs, and although I did not do research into their locations, nor did I differentiate their social institutions, I believe that the great merits of Emperor [Taizong] have surpassed those of the three ancient emperors and the five monarchs of old. All living creatures are benefited by his genial influence and every human being who can speak extols his merits. From the Tang empire up to the land of India all the people, either of secluded regions with different customs or of isolated places and alien countries, accept the Chinese calendar and enjoy the fame and teachings of the Emperor. The praise of his military feats has become a topic of conversation and the commendation of his civic virtue is the most popular theme. I examined various books but found no records of these things, and I presume that there is no similar instance mentioned in the genealogical tables. Had I not made this narration, how could I record the beneficial influence of the Emperor? The narratives I have now composed are based on what I saw and heard. 

Now the saha world, consisting of one great chiliocosm, is the sphere of the spiritual influence of one buddha. The four continents under the illumination of one sun and moon within the great chiliocosm are the places where the buddhas, the World-honored Ones, emerge in their incarnation bodies and manifest birth and death to enlighten saints and ordinary beings. Mount Sumeru, meaning “Wonderful High Mountain,” is composed of the four precious substances. It is located in the sea, standing on the golden wheel, under the illumination of the sun and moon in rotation, being the residence of heavenly beings, surrounded by a ring of seven mountains and seven seas. The water in the seas between the mountains possesses the eight virtues. Beyond the seven golden mountains is the Salt Sea. Roughly speaking, there are four habitable continents in the seas, namely, the Videha continent in the east, the Jambu continent in the south, the Godaniya continent in the west, and the Kuru continent in the north. A gold wheel king rules over all these four continents, a silver wheel king administers all except the Kuru continent in the north, a copper wheel king’s domination does not include the Kuru continent in the north or the Godaniya continent in the west, while an iron wheel king controls only the Jambu continent in the south.

When a wheel king is about to ascend the throne a great precious wheel of gold, silver, copper, or iron will appear in the air according to his merits, to empower him to rule over four, three, two, or one continent, as the case may be. As the wheel is an auspicious symbol, it is adopted as the title of the kings.

In the center of the Jambu continent is Anavatapta Lake, meaning “No Trouble of Heat,” which is south of Fragrant Mountain and north of the Great Snow Mountains, with a circuit of eight hundred li. Its banks are adorned with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. It is full of golden sand and its water is as pure and clean as a mirror. A bodhisattva of the eighth stage, having transformed himself into a naga king by the power of his resolute will, makes his abode at the bottom of the lake and supplies water for the Jambu continent. Thus from the mouth of the silver ox at the east side of the lake flows the Ganges River, which, after going round the lake once, enters the Southeast Sea; from the mouth of the golden elephant at the south side of the lake flows the Indus River, which, after winding round the lake once, enters the Southwest Sea; from the mouth of the lapis lazuli horse at the west side of the lake flows the Oxus River, which, after meandering round the lake once, enters the Northwest Sea; and from the mouth of the crystal lion at the north side of the lake flows the Sita River, which, after encircling the lake once, enters the Northeast Sea, or it is said that it flows by a subterranean course to Jishi Mountain, where the water reappears as a tributary of the Sita and becomes the source of the Yellow River in China.

As there is no ruler now destined to be a wheel king, the Jambu continent is reigned by four lords. The dominion under the sovereignty of the lord of elephants in the south is hot and humid in climate, and it is fit for breeding elephants. In the west the lord of treasure rides over the land beside the sea, where there are plenty of precious substances. The place of the lord of horses in the north is cold and bracing, and it is good for rearing horses. The country of the lord of humans in the east is well populated with amiable inhabitants.

The people of the lord of elephants are impetuous by nature, but they are devoted to studies and are especially skillful in miraculous arts. They wear a piece of cloth across the body, leaving the right shoulder bare. Their hair is made into a topknot with tufts falling down on the sides. They live in groups of clans in towns, and their houses are multistoried.

In the country of the lord of treasure the people know nothing of propriety and righteousness and overestimate wealth and property. They wear short jackets fastened on the left side and cut their hair short but keep long mustaches. They live in towns and gain profit by engaging in trade.

The people under the rule of the lord of horses are of a furious disposition and are cruel man-slayers. They live in felt yurts and are migratory herdsmen.

In the land of the lord of humans the people are clever and skillful with obvious sentiments of kindness and righteousness. They wear hats and belts and their garments are buttoned on the right side. Their carriages and clothes are classified according to the ranks and orders of the people, and they are attached to their native land and unwilling to leave it. They have a class of people specially devoted to commerce.

Excluding the lord of humans, the other three lords hold the east as the superior direction. Their people build houses with doors opening to the east, and early in the morning they pay reverence toward that direction. In the land of the lord of humans the people respect the southern direction.

Such is the general condition of the different customs and modes of living in the diverse countries. As regards the etiquette observed between a monarch and his subjects and that between the superior and the inferior, and the cultural institutions and political systems, the land of the lord of humans excels all the other countries; as to instructions concerning the purification of the mind and liberation from worldly burdens, as well as teachings to relieve one from birth and death, the best theories are in the country of the lord of elephants. All these matters are recorded in classical works and imperial mandates and are also heard from the local people. I have made a careful check about what I saw and heard.

Though the Buddha was born in the West his Dharma has spread to the East. In the course of translation mistakes may have crept into the texts, and idioms may have been misapplied. When the words are wrong the meaning is lost, and when a phrase is mistaken the doctrine becomes distorted. Hence the saying, “It is necessary to use correct names.” What is valuable is the absence of faults!

Human beings are of different dispositions, stubborn or pliable, and speak different languages. This is caused by climatic conditions and by customary usage. As to the varieties of physical features and natural products of the land of the lord of humans, and the different customs and temperaments of its people, they are recorded in detail in our national histories. As to the customs of the land of the lord of horses and the country of the lord of treasure, they are fully described in historical records, and we can give a brief account of them. But as to the country of the lord of elephants, it has never been described accurately in our ancient literature. Some said that it was mostly a hot and humid country, and others depicted its people as customarily fond of kindness and compassion. These are mentioned in topographies, but no detailed information can be found. As the Way is sometimes prevalent and sometimes in hiding, do not human affairs also have changes of fortune?

Thus we may know that it is difficult to describe all those who predict the right season to pledge allegiance and who come to submit to the benevolence of the Emperor, or those who, passing one danger after another, seek admittance at Yumen Pass bearing tribute of native rarities and bow before the gate of the imperial palace. This is why in the intervals of my studies during my long journey inquiring for truth I took notes on the conditions and customs along the way.

Up to the Black Range, the customs of the Hu people are prevalent. Although they live together with the Rong people in the same localities, they are distinct tribes and their territories are demarcated. They are mostly aborigines, living in walled cities, engaging in agriculture and rearing cattle. They value wealth and property, and to despise kindness and righteousness is their custom. They have no ceremony for marriage and no distinction between the superior people and the inferior. The wife’s word is authoritative and the husband occupies a low position. They cremate the bodies of the dead and have no fixed period of mourning, but they scrape their faces, mutilate their ears, cut off their hair, and rend their garments. They slaughter domestic animals as sacrifices offered to the manes of the dead. On happy occasions they put on white clothes, while at sorrowfill events they are dressed in black.

This is a brief account of the common or similar customs of the tribes; the different politics and various institutions of diverse countries will be described separately as the occasion arises, and the manners and customs of India will be narrated in the following Record.