Having presented a broad overview of the world-transcending path in the previous chapter, in this chapter and the next I intend to focus more specifically on two aspects of this path as described in the Nikāyas, meditation and wisdom. As we have seen, the gradual training is divided into the three sections of moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom (see pp. 225–26). Moral discipline begins with the observance of precepts, which anchor one’s actions in principles of conscientious behavior and moral restraint. The undertaking of precepts—for the Nikāyas, particularly the full code of monastic precepts—is called the training in the higher moral discipline (adhisīlasikkhā). Moral discipline, consistently observed, infuses the mind with the purifying force of moral virtue, generating joy and deeper confidence in the Dhamma.

Established upon moral discipline, the disciple takes up the practice of meditation, intended to stabilize the mind and clear away the obstacles to the unfolding of wisdom. Because meditation elevates the mind beyond its normal level, this phase of practice is called the training in the higher mind (adhicittasikkhā). Because it brings inner stillness and quietude, it is also called the development of serenity (samathabhāvanā). Successful practice results in deep concentration or mental unification (samādhi), also known as internal serenity of mind (ajjhattaṃ cetosamatha). The most eminent types of concentration recognized in the Nikāyas are the four jhānas, which constitute right concentration (sammā samādhi) of the Noble Eightfold Path. Beyond the jhānas lie the four formless attainments (arūpasamāpatti), which carry the process of mental unification to still subtler levels.

The third stage of practice is the training in the higher wisdom (adhipaññāsikkhā), designed to awaken direct insight into the true nature of things as disclosed by the Buddha’s teaching. This will be dealt with in detail in the following chapter.

The first selection below, Text VIII,1, is a miscellany of short epigrams that stress the need for mental cultivation. The sayings occur in pairs. In each pair, the first member signals the dangers of the uncultivated mind, the second extols the benefits of the cultivated mind. The uncultivated mind is easy prey to the defilements—greed, hatred, and delusion and their offshoots. The defilements generate unwholesome kamma, which brings painful results both in this life and in future lives. Since the defilements are the cause of our suffering and bondage, the path to liberation necessarily involves a meticulous process of mental training intended to subdue them and ultimately uproot them from their nesting place in the deep recesses of the mind. From development of the mind arise happiness, freedom, and peace.

Development of the mind, for the Nikāyas, means the development of serenity (samatha) and insight (vipassanā). Text VIII,2(1) says that when serenity is developed, it leads to concentration and the liberation of the mind from such emotional defilements as lust and ill will. When insight is developed, it leads to the higher wisdom of insight into the true nature of phenomena and permanently liberates the mind from ignorance. Thus the two things most needed to master the mind are serenity and insight.

Since concentration is the basis for wisdom, the Nikāyas usually treat the development of serenity as the precursor to the development of insight. However, because the aptitudes of meditators differ, several suttas allow for alternative approaches to this sequence. Text VIII,2(2) speaks of four approaches to mental cultivation:

1) The first approach, the classical one, is to develop serenity first and insight afterward. By “serenity” is meant the jhānas or (according to the Pāli commentaries) a state bordering on the jhānas called “access” or “threshold” concentration (upacārasamādhi).

2) A second approach is to develop insight first and serenity afterward. Since there can be no real insight without concentration, such meditators—presumably people with sharp intellectual faculties—must initially use concentration as the basis for acquiring insight into the true characteristics of phenomena. However, it seems that such concentration, though sufficient for insight, is not strong enough to allow for a breakthrough to the supramundane path. These meditators must therefore return to the task of unifying the mind before resuming the work of insight. Such insight, based on concentration, culminates in the supramundane path.

3) A third approach is to develop serenity and insight in tandem. Meditators who take this approach first attain a particular level of concentration, such as a jhāna or formless attainment, and then employ it as a basis for insight. Having developed insight, they then return to concentration, attain a different jhāna or formless attainment, and use that as a basis for insight. Thus they proceed until they reach the supramundane path.

4) The description of the fourth approach is somewhat obscure. The sutta says that “a monk’s mind is seized by agitation about the teachings,” and then, some time later, he gains concentration and attains the supramundane path. This statement suggests a person initially driven by such intense desire to understand the Dhamma that he or she cannot focus clearly upon any meditation object. Later, with the aid of certain supporting conditions, this person manages to subdue the mind, gain concentration, and attain the supramundane path.

Text VIII,2(3) again confirms that both serenity and insight are necessary, and also indicates the skills needed for their respective practice. The cultivation of serenity requires skill in steadying, composing, unifying, and concentrating the mind. The cultivation of insight requires skill in observing, investigating, and discerning conditioned phenomena, spoken of as “formations” (saṅkhārā). In line with the preceding text, this sutta confirms that some meditators begin by developing internal serenity of mind, others by developing the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena, others by developing both in tandem. But while meditators may start off differently, eventually they must all strike a healthy balance between serenity and insight. The exact point of balance between the two will differ from one person to another, but when a meditator achieves the appropriate balance, serenity and insight join forces to issue in the knowledge and vision of the Four Noble Truths. This knowledge and vision—the world-transcending wisdom—occurs in four distinct “installments,” the four stages of realization which, in sequence, permanently destroy ignorance along with the affiliated defilements.1 Text VIII,2(2) subsumes these defilements under the expression “the fetters and underlying tendencies.”

The main impediments to the development of serenity and insight are collectively called the “five hindrances,” which we already met in the extended account of the gradual training (see Text VII,4 §18). Text VIII,3 states that just as different impurities of water prevent us from clearly seeing the reflection of our face in a bowl of water, so the five hindrances prevent us from properly understanding our own good and the good of others. A meditator’s initial efforts therefore have to be devoted to the task of overcoming the hindrances. Once these are overcome, success is assured in the practice of serenity and insight.

Text VIII,4 compares the successive stages in the purification of the mind to the refinement of gold. The meditating monk begins by removing the gross impurities of bodily, verbal, and mental conduct; this is achieved by moral discipline and vigilant introspection. Then he eliminates the middle-level impurities of unwholesome thoughts: thoughts of sensuality, ill will, and harmfulness. Next come the subtle impurities of meandering thoughts. Finally, he must eliminate thoughts about the Dhamma, the subtlest obstacle. When all such distracting thoughts are removed, the monk attains “mental unification” (ekodibhāva), the basis for the six “direct knowledges” (abhiññā) culminating in arahantship, the knowledge of the destruction of the taints.

The Nikāyas sometimes compare the process of training the mind to the taming of a wild animal. Just as an animal trainer has to use various techniques to bring the animal under control, the meditator has to draw upon various methods to subdue the mind. It is not enough to be acquainted with one meditation technique; one must be skilled in a number of methods intended as antidotes to specific mental obstructions. In Text VIII,5 the Buddha explains five ancillary techniques—here called “signs” (nimitta)—that a monk might deploy to eliminate unwholesome thoughts connected with lust, hatred, and delusion. One who succeeds in overcoming distracting thoughts by the use of these techniques is called “a master of the courses of thought.”

The suttas teach various techniques of meditation aimed at inducing concentration. One popular formula pits specific meditation subjects against the unwholesome mental states they are intended to rectify. Thus the meditation on the unattractive nature of the body (see Text VIII,8 §10) is the remedy for sensual lust; loving-kindness is the remedy for ill will; mindfulness of breathing is the remedy for restlessness; and the perception of impermanence is the remedy for the conceit “I am.”2 The perception of impermanence is a subject of insight meditation, the other three subjects of serenity meditation. Loving-kindness is the first of the four divine abodes (brahmavihāra) or immeasurable states (appamaññā) briefly discussed in chapter V: boundless loving-kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. These are respectively the antidotes to ill will, harmfulness, discontent, and partiality. Since we already introduced the standard canonical passage on the divine abodes in connection with meditation as a basis for merit—see Text V,5(2)—to shed a different spotlight on this practice I have included here, as Text VIII,6, the famous Simile of the Saw, a passage that shows loving-kindness in action.

Through the centuries the most popular meditation subjects among lay Buddhists have probably been the six recollections (anussati): of the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Saṅgha, morality, generosity, and the devas. Text VIII,7 is an important canonical source for these meditations. Their themes are especially close to the hearts and everyday experiences of people living household lives in a culture imbued with Buddhist values. These meditation practices in turn enrich and uplift their lives, bringing them into closer spiritual contact with the ideals of religious faith. The first three are primarily devotional recollections that build upon confidence in the Three Jewels; but while they begin with faith, they temporarily cleanse the mind of defilements and conduce to sustained concentration. The meditation on moral discipline develops from one’s observance of the precepts, a practice aimed at self-benefit; the recollection of generosity builds upon one’s practice of giving, an altruistic practice; the recollection of the devas is a contemplation of the fruits of one’s faith, morality, generosity, and wisdom as they mature in future lives.

The discourse generally considered to offer the most comprehensive instructions on meditation practice is the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.3 Two versions of this sutta exist, a longer version in the Dīgha Nikāya, a middle-length version in the Majjhima Nikāya. The former differs from the latter only by its extended analysis of the Four Noble Truths, which may have originally been an early commentary incorporated into the discourse. The middle-length version is included here as Text VIII,8. An entire chapter in the Saṃyutta Nikāya, the Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta, is also devoted to this system of meditation.

The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta does not recommend a single meditation subject nor even a single method of meditation. Its purpose, rather, is to explain how to establish the mode of contemplation needed to arrive at realization of Nibbāna. The appropriate frame of mind to be established, as implied by the title of the sutta, is called an “establishment of mindfulness.” The word satipaṭṭhāna should probably be understood as a compound of sati, mindfulness, and upaṭṭhāna, establishment; hence “establishment of mindfulness” would be the rendering that best captures the original meaning. According to the standard formula that accompanies each exercise, a satipaṭṭhāna is a mode of dwelling (viharati). This mode of dwelling involves observation of objects in the proper frame of mind. The frame of mind consists of three positive qualities: energy (ātāpa, “ardor”), mindfulness (sati), and clear comprehension (sampajañña). The word sati originally meant memory, but in the present context it signifies recollection of the present, a sustained awareness of what is happening to us and within us on each occasion of experience. Mindfulness, in its initial stages, is concerned with keeping the contemplative mind continually on its object, which means keeping the object continually present to the mind. Mindfulness prevents the mind from slipping away, from drifting off under the sway of random thoughts into mental proliferation and forgetfulness. Mindfulness is often said to occur in close conjunction with “clear comprehension,” a clear knowledge and understanding of what one is experiencing.

The opening formula of the sutta says that one engages in this practice after “having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world” (vineyya loke abhijjhā-domanassaṃ). The expression “having subdued” need not be taken to imply that one must first overcome longing and dejection—which, according to the commentary, signify greed and aversion and thus represent the five hindrances—before one can start to practice satipaṭṭhāna. The expression might be understood to mean that the practice is itself the means of overcoming longing and dejection. Thus, while subduing the obstructive influences of greed and aversion, the meditator arouses the positive qualities of energy, mindfulness, and clear comprehension, and contemplates four objective domains: the body, feelings, states of mind, and phenomena. It is these four objective domains that differentiate mindful observation into four establishments of mindfulness.

The four objective domains divide the expository portion of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta into four major sections. Two of these sections, the first and the fourth, have several subdivisions. When the divisions are added up, we obtain altogether twenty-one meditation subjects. Several of these can be used as means to develop serenity (samatha), but the satipaṭṭhāna system as a whole seems especially designed for the development of insight. The main sections with their divisions are as follows:

1.Contemplation of the body (kāyānupassanā). This comprises fourteen subjects of meditation: mindfulness of breathing; contemplation of the four postures; clear comprehension of activities; attention to the unattractive nature of the body (viewed by way of its organs and tissues); attention to the elements; and nine charnel ground contemplations, contemplations based on corpses in different stages of decomposition.

2.Contemplation of feeling (vedanānupassanā). Feeling is differentiated into three primary types—pleasant, painful, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant—which are each further distinguished into carnal and spiritual feelings. However, because these are all merely different types of feeling, the contemplation of feeling is considered one subject.

3.Contemplation of mind (cittānupassanā). This is one subject of contemplation—the mind—differentiated into eight pairs of contrasting states of mind.

4.Contemplation of phenomena (dhammānupassanā). The word dhammā here probably signifies phenomena, which are classified into five categories governed by the Buddha’s teaching, the Dhamma. Thus dhammānupassanā has a dual meaning, “dhammas (phenomena) contemplated by way of the Dhamma (the teaching).” The five categories are: the five hindrances, the five aggregates, the six internal and external sense bases, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Four Noble Truths.

Although not specified in the sutta, a progressive sequence seems to be implied by the terms describing each contemplation. In mindfulness of breathing one moves to subtler levels of quiescence; in contemplation of feeling, one moves toward noncarnal feelings that are neither painful nor pleasant; in contemplation of mind, one moves toward states of mind that are concentrated and liberated. These all suggest that progressive contemplation brings enhanced concentration. In the contemplation of phenomena, the emphasis shifts toward insight. One begins by observing and overcoming the five hindrances. The overcoming of the hindrances marks success in concentration. With the concentrated mind, one contemplates the five aggregates and the six sense bases. As contemplation gains momentum, the seven factors of enlightenment become manifest, and the development of the seven enlightenment factors culminates in knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. Knowledge of the Four Noble Truths liberates the mind from the defilements and thus leads to the attainment of Nibbāna. Thus this system of meditation fulfills the potential ascribed to it by the Buddha of leading directly to the realization of Nibbāna.

Each major contemplative exercise is supplemented by an auxiliary section, a “refrain” with four subdivisions. The first states that the meditator contemplates the object internally (within his or her own experience), externally (reflectively considering it as occurring within the experience of others), and both; this ensures that one obtains a comprehensive and balanced view of the object. The second portion states that the meditator contemplates the object as subject to origination, as subject to vanishing, and as subject to both origination and vanishing; this brings to light the characteristic of impermanence and thus leads to insight into the three characteristics: impermanence, suffering, and nonself (anicca, dukkha, anattā). The third states that the meditator is simply aware of the bare object to the extent necessary for constant mindfulness and knowledge. And the fourth describes the meditator as dwelling in a state of complete detachment, not clinging to anything in the world.

In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati) is included as merely one meditation subject among others, but the Nikāyas assign it a position of fundamental importance. The Buddha said that he used mindfulness of breathing as his main meditation subject for the attainment of enlightenment (see SN 54:8; V 317). During his teaching career he occasionally went into seclusion to devote himself to “the concentration gained through mindfulness of breathing” and he confers on it a unique honor by calling it “the Tathāgata’s dwelling” (SN 54:11; V 326).

Mindfulness of breathing is the subject of an entire chapter in the Saṃyutta Nikāya (SN 54, Ānāpānasaṃyutta). Whereas the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta explains mindfulness of breathing by a four-step formula, the suttas in this collection expand its practice to sixteen steps. Text VIII,9, from the Ānāpānasaṃyutta, describes the sixteen steps. Since these steps are not necessarily sequential but partly overlap, they might be thought of as facets rather than actual steps. The sixteen facets are grouped into four tetrads each of which corresponds to one of the four establishments of mindfulness. The first tetrad contains the four facets mentioned in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta in its section on contemplation of the body, but the other tetrads extend the practice to the contemplations of feelings, mind, and phenomena. Thus the development of mindfulness of breathing can fulfill not just one but all four establishments of mindfulness. The four establishments of mindfulness, based on mindfulness of breathing, in turn fulfill the seven factors of enlightenment; and these in turn fulfill true knowledge and liberation. This exposition thus shows mindfulness of breathing to be a complete subject of meditation that begins with simple attention to the breath and culminates in the permanent liberation of the mind.

Finally, in Text VIII,10, the Buddha’s chief disciple, the Venerable Sāriputta, testifies to his own achievement of mastery over the mind. In reply to questions from the Venerable Ānanda, he explains how he is able to dwell for a whole day in each of the jhānas and formless attainments, as well as in the special attainment called the cessation of perception and feeling (saññāvedayitanirodha). In each case, because he is an arahant, he can do so without grasping these attainments with thoughts of “I” and “mine.”

1. “I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that is so unwieldy as an undeveloped mind. An undeveloped mind is truly unwieldy.

2. “I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that is so wieldy as a developed mind. A developed mind is truly wieldy.

3. “I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that leads to such great harm as an undeveloped mind. An undeveloped mind leads to great harm.

4. “I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that leads to such great benefit as a developed mind. A developed mind leads to great benefit.

9. “I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that when undeveloped and uncultivated entails such great suffering as the mind. The mind when undeveloped and uncultivated entails great suffering.

10. “I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that when developed and cultivated entails such great happiness as the mind. The mind when developed and cultivated entails great happiness.”

(AN 1: iii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10; I 5–6)

(1) Serenity and Insight

“Two things, O monks, partake of true knowledge. What two? Serenity and insight.

“When serenity is developed, what benefit does one experience? The mind is developed. When the mind is developed, what benefit does one experience? All lust is abandoned.4

“When insight is developed, what benefit does one experience? Wisdom is developed. When wisdom is developed, what benefit does one experience? All ignorance is abandoned.5

“A mind defiled by lust is not liberated; and wisdom defiled by ignorance is not developed. Thus, monks, through the fading away of lust there is liberation of mind; and through the fading away of ignorance there is liberation by wisdom.”6

(AN 2: iii, 10; I 61)

(2) Four Ways to Arahantship

Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Venerable Ānanda was dwelling at Kosambī in Ghosita’s monastery. There the Venerable Ānanda addressed the monks thus:

“Friends!”

“Yes, friend,” the monks replied. Thereupon the Venerable Ānanda said:

“Friends, whatever monks or nuns declare before me that they have attained the final knowledge of arahantship, all these do so in one of four ways. What four?

“Here, friends, a monk develops insight preceded by serenity.7 While he thus develops insight preceded by serenity, the path arises in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies eliminated.8

“Or again, friends, a monk develops serenity preceded by insight.9 While he thus develops serenity preceded by insight, the path arises in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies eliminated.

“Or again, friends, a monk develops serenity and insight joined in pairs.10 While he thus develops serenity and insight joined in pairs, the path arises in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies eliminated.

“Or again, friends, a monk’s mind is seized by agitation about the teaching.11 But there comes a time when his mind becomes internally steadied, composed, unified, and concentrated; then the path arises in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies eliminated.

“Friends, whatever monks or nuns declare before me that they have attained the final knowledge of arahantship, all these do so in one of these four ways.”

(AN 4:170; II 156–57)

(3) Four Kinds of Persons

“These four kinds of persons, O monks, are found existing in the world. What four?

“Here, monks, a certain person gains internal serenity of mind but does not gain the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.12 Another person gains the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena but does not gain internal serenity of mind. Another person gains neither internal serenity of mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena. And another person gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

“Therein, monks, the person who gains internal serenity of mind but not the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should approach one who gains the higher wisdom and inquire of him: ‘How, friend, should formations be seen? How should formations be explored? How should formations be discerned with insight?’13 The other then answers him as he has seen and understood the matter thus: ‘Formations should be seen in such a way; they should be explored in such a way; they should be discerned with insight in such a way.’ At a later time this one gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

“Therein, monks, the person who gains the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena but not internal serenity of mind should approach one who gains internal serenity and inquire of him: ‘How, friend, should the mind be steadied? How should the mind be composed? How should the mind be unified? How should the mind be concentrated?’ The other then answers him as he has seen and understood the matter thus: ‘The mind should be steadied in such a way, composed in such a way, unified in such a way, concentrated in such a way.’ At a later time this one gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

“Therein, monks, the person who gains neither internal serenity of mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should approach one who gains both and inquire of him: ‘How, friend, should the mind be steadied?… How, friend, should formations be seen?…’ The other then answers him as he has seen and understood the matter thus: ‘The mind should be steadied in such a way…. Formations should be seen in such a way.…’ At a later time this one gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

“Therein, monks, the person who gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should establish himself in just these wholesome states and make a further effort for the destruction of the taints.”

(AN 4:94; II 93–95)

Then the brahmin Saṅgārava approached the Blessed One, exchanged greetings with him, sat down to one side, and said:

“Master Gotama, why is it that sometimes even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited? And why is it that sometimes those texts that have not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that have been recited?”

“Brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by sensual lust, overwhelmed by sensual lust, and one does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen sensual lust,14 on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really is one’s own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water mixed with red, yellow, blue, or crimson dye. If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by sensual lust … even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by ill will, overwhelmed by ill will, and one does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen ill will, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really is one’s own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water being heated over a fire, bubbling and boiling. If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by ill will… even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by dullness and drowsiness, overwhelmed by dullness and drowsiness, and one does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen dullness and drowsiness, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really is one’s own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water covered over with water plants and algae. If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by dullness and drowsiness … even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by restlessness and remorse, overwhelmed by restlessness and remorse, and one does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen restlessness and remorse, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really is one’s own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water stirred by the wind, rippling, swirling, churned into wavelets. If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by restlessness and remorse … even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by doubt, overwhelmed by doubt, and one does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen doubt, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really is one’s own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water that is turbid, unsettled, muddy, placed in the dark. If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by doubt … even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“This, brahmin, is the reason why even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

“Brahmin, when one dwells with a mind that is not obsessed by sensual lust, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt, on that occasion even those texts that have not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that have been recited.

“Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water that is not mixed with dyes; not bubbling and boiling; not covered over with water plants and algae; not stirred by the wind and churned into wavelets; clear, serene, limpid, set out in the light. If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would know and see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind that is not obsessed by sensual lust, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt on that occasion even those texts that have not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that have been recited.

“This, brahmin, is the reason why even those texts that have not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that have been recited.”…

When this was said, the brahmin Saṅgārava said to the Blessed One: “Magnificent, Master Gotama!… Let Master Gotama accept me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge from today until life’s end.”

(SN 46:55, abridged; V 121–26)

“There are, O monks, gross impurities in gold, such as earth and sand, gravel and grit. Now the goldsmith or his apprentice first pours the gold into a trough and washes, rinses, and cleans it thoroughly. When he has done this, there still remain moderate impurities in the gold, such as fine grit and coarse sand. Then the goldsmith or his apprentice washes, rinses, and cleans it again. When he has done this, there still remain minute impurities in the gold, such as fine sand and black dust. Now the goldsmith or his apprentice repeats the washing, and thereafter only the gold dust remains.

“He now pours the gold into a melting pot, smelts it, and melts it together. But he does not yet take it out from the vessel, as the dross has not yet been entirely removed and the gold is not yet quite pliant, workable, and bright; it is still brittle and does not yet lend itself easily to molding. But a time comes when the goldsmith or his apprentice repeats the melting thoroughly, so that the flaws are entirely removed. The gold is now quite pliant, workable, and bright, and it lends itself easily to molding. Whatever ornament the goldsmith now wishes to make of it, be it a diadem, earrings, a necklace, or a golden chain, the gold can now be used for that purpose.

“It is similar, monks, with a monk devoted to the training in the higher mind: there are in him gross impurities, namely, bad conduct of body, speech, and mind. Such conduct an earnest, capable monk abandons, dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.

“When he has abandoned these, there are still impurities of a moderate degree that cling to him, namely, sensual thoughts, thoughts of ill will, and thoughts of harming.15 Such thoughts an earnest, capable monk abandons, dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.

“When he has abandoned these, there are still some subtle impurities that cling to him, namely, thoughts about his relatives, his home country, and his reputation. Such thoughts an earnest, capable monk abandons dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.

“When he has abandoned these, there still remain thoughts about the teaching.16 That concentration is not yet peaceful and sublime; it has not attained to full tranquillity, nor has it achieved mental unification; it is maintained by strenuous suppression of the defilements.

“But there comes a time when his mind becomes inwardly steadied, composed, unified, and concentrated. That concentration is then calm and refined; it has attained to full tranquillity and achieved mental unification; it is not maintained by strenuous suppression of the defilements.

“Then, to whatever mental state realizable by direct knowledge he directs his mind, he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.17

“If he wishes: ‘May I wield the various kinds of spiritual power: having been one, may I become many; having been many, may I become one; may I appear and vanish; go unhindered through a wall, through a rampart, through a mountain as if through space; dive in and out of the earth as if it were water; walk on water without sinking as if it were earth; travel through the sky like a bird while seated cross-legged; touch and stroke with my hand the moon and sun, so powerful and mighty; exercise mastery with my body even as far as the brahma world’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

“If he wishes: ‘With the divine ear element, which is purified and surpasses the human, may I hear both kinds of sounds, the divine and human, those that are far as well as near’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

“If he wishes: ‘May I understand the minds of other beings, of other persons, having encompassed them with my own mind. May I understand a mind with lust as a mind with lust; a mind without lust as a mind without lust; a mind with hatred as a mind with hatred; a mind without hatred as a mind without hatred; a mind with delusion as a mind with delusion; a mind without delusion as a mind without delusion; a contracted mind as contracted, and a distracted mind as distracted; an exalted mind as exalted, and an unexalted mind as unexalted; a surpassable mind as surpassable, and an unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable; a concentrated mind as concentrated, and an unconcentrated mind as unconcentrated; a liberated mind as liberated, and an unliberated mind as unliberated’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

“If he wishes, ‘May I recollect my manifold past lives … [see Text II,3(2)§38] … with their modes and details’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

“If he wishes, ‘With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, may I see beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate … [see Text II,3(2)§40] … and understand how beings fare on in accordance with their action’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

“If he wishes, ‘By the destruction of the taints, may I in this very life enter and dwell in the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, realizing it for myself with direct knowledge’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.”

(AN 3:100 §§1–10; I 253–56)

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. There he addressed the monks thus: “Monks.”—“Venerable sir,” they replied. The Blessed One said this:

2. “Monks, when a monk is pursuing the higher mind, from time to time he should give attention to five signs.18 What are the five?

3. (i) “Here, monks, when a monk is giving attention to some sign, and owing to that sign there arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should give attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome.19 When he gives attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome, then any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a skilled carpenter or his apprentice might knock out, remove, and extract a coarse peg by means of a fine one, so too … when a monk gives attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated.

4. (ii) “If, while he is giving attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome, there still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should examine the danger in those thoughts thus: ‘These thoughts are unwholesome, reprehensible, resulting in suffering.’ When he examines the danger in those thoughts, then any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man or a woman, young, youthful, and fond of ornaments, would be horrified, humiliated, and disgusted if the carcass of a snake or a dog or a human being were hung around his or her neck, so too … when a monk examines the danger in those thoughts … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated.

5. (iii) “If, while he is examining the danger in those thoughts, there still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should try to forget those thoughts and should not give attention to them. When he tries to forget those thoughts and does not give attention to them, then any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man with good eyes who did not want to see forms that had come within range of sight would either shut his eyes or look away, so too … when a monk tries to forget those thoughts and does not give attention to them … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated.

6. (iv) “If, while he is trying to forget those thoughts and is not giving attention to them, there still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should give attention to stilling the thought-formation of those thoughts.20 When he gives attention to stilling the thought-formation of those thoughts, then any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man walking fast might consider: ‘Why am I walking fast? What if I walk slowly?’ and he would walk slowly; then he might consider: ‘Why am I walking slowly? What if I stand?’ and he would stand; then he might consider: ‘Why am I standing? What if I sit?’ and he would sit; then he might consider: ‘Why am I sitting? What if I lie down?’ and he would lie down. By doing so he would substitute for each grosser posture one that was subtler. So too … when a monk gives attention to stilling the thought-formation of those thoughts … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated.

7. (v) “If, while he is giving attention to stilling the thought-formation of those thoughts, there still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then, with his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, he should beat down, constrain, and crush mind with mind. When, with his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, he beats down, constrains, and crushes mind with mind, then any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a strong man might seize a weaker man by the head or shoulders and beat him down, constrain him, and crush him, so too … when, with his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, a monk beats down, constrains, and crushes mind with mind … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated.

8. “Monks, when a monk is giving attention to some sign, and owing to that sign there arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then when he gives attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome, any such evil unwholesome thoughts are abandoned in him and subside, and with their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. When he examines the danger in those thoughts … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. When he tries to forget those thoughts and does not give attention to them … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. When he gives attention to stilling the thought-formation of those thoughts … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. When, with his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, he beats down, constrains, and crushes mind with mind, any such evil unwholesome thoughts are abandoned in him and subside, and with their abandoning, his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. This monk is then called a master of the courses of thought. He will think whatever thought he wishes to think and he will not think any thought that he does not wish to think. He has severed craving, flung off the fetters, and with the complete penetration of conceit he has made an end of suffering.”

That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and delighted in the Blessed One’s words.

(MN 20: Vitakkasaṇṭhāna Sutta; I 118–22)

11. “Monks, there are these five courses of speech that others may use when they address you: their speech may be timely or untimely, true or untrue, gentle or harsh, connected with good or with harm, spoken with a mind of loving-kindness or in a mood of hate. When others address you, their speech may be timely or untimely; when others address you, their speech may be true or untrue; when others address you, their speech may be gentle or harsh; when others address you, their speech may be connected with good or with harm; when others address you, their speech may be spoken with a mind of loving-kindness or in a mood of hate. Herein, monks, you should train thus: ‘Our minds will remain unaffected, and we shall utter no bitter words; we shall abide compassionate for their welfare, with a mind of loving-kindness, never in a mood of hate. We shall abide pervading that person with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, and starting with that person,21 we shall abide pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.’ That is how you should train, monks….

20. “Monks, even if bandits were to sever you savagely limb by limb with a two-handled saw, he who gave rise to a mind of hate toward them would not be carrying out my teaching. Herein, monks, you should train thus: ‘Our minds will remain unaffected, and we shall utter no bitter words; we shall abide compassionate for their welfare, with a mind of loving-kindness, never in a mood of hate. We shall abide pervading them with a mind imbued with loving-kindness; and starting with them, we shall abide pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.’ That is how you should train, monks.

21. “Monks, if you keep this advice on the simile of the saw constantly in mind, do you see any course of speech, trivial or gross, that you could not endure?”

—“No, venerable sir.”

—“Therefore, monks, you should keep this advice on the simile of the saw constantly in mind. That will lead to your welfare and happiness for a long time.”

(from MN 21: Kakacūpama Sutta; I 126–27, 129)

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Kapilavatthu in the Banyan-tree Monastery. Then Mahānāma the Sakyan approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said: 22

“Venerable sir, in what way does a noble disciple often dwell when he has arrived at the fruit and understood the teaching?”23

“When, Mahānāma, a noble disciple has arrived at the fruit and understood the teaching, he often dwells in such a way as this. Here, a noble disciple recollects the Tathāgata thus: ‘The Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ When a noble disciple recollects the Tathāgata thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the Tathāgata as its object. A noble disciple whose mind is straight gains the inspiration of the meaning, the inspiration of the Dhamma, gains gladness connected with the Dhamma. When he is gladdened rapture arises; for one uplifted by rapture the body becomes calm; one calm in body feels happy; for one who is happy the mind becomes concentrated. This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of the Buddha.

“Further, Mahānāma, a noble disciple recollects the Dhamma thus: ‘The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible, immediate, inviting one to come and see, worthy of application, to be personally experienced by the wise.’ When a noble disciple recollects the Dhamma thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the Dhamma as its object.… This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of the Dhamma.

“Further, Mahānāma, a noble disciple recollects the Saṅgha thus: ‘The Saṅgha of the Blessed One’s disciples is practicing the good way, practicing the straight way, practicing the true way, practicing the proper way; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals—this Saṅgha of the Blessed One’s disciples is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.’ When a noble disciple recollects the Saṅgha thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the Saṅgha as its object.… This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of the Saṅgha.

“Further, Mahānāma, a noble disciple recollects his own moral discipline thus: ‘I possess the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to concentration.’ When a noble disciple recollects his own moral discipline thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with virtue as its object.… This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of moral discipline.

“Further, Mahānāma, a noble disciple recollects his own generosity thus: ‘It is a gain for me, it is well gained by me, that in a population obsessed by the stain of stinginess, I dwell at home with a mind devoid of the stain of stinginess, freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one devoted to charity, delighting in giving and sharing.’ When a noble disciple recollects his own generosity thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with generosity as its object.… This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of generosity.

“Further, Mahānāma, a noble disciple develops the recollection of the devas thus: ‘There are devas in the various heavenly realms.24 There is found in me such faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, and wisdom as those devas possessed because of which, when they passed away from this world, they were reborn there.’ When a noble disciple recollects his own faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, and wisdom, as well as those of the devas, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the devas as its object.… This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of the devas.

“A noble disciple, Mahānāma, who has arrived at the fruit and understood the teaching often dwells in just this way.”

(AN 6:10; III 284–88)

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living in the Kuru country where there was a town of the Kurus named Kammāsa-dhamma. There he addressed the monks thus: “Monks.”—“Venerable sir,” they replied. The Blessed One said this:

2. “Monks, this is the one-way path25 for the purification of beings, for the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the passing away of pain and dejection, for the attainment of the true way, for the realization of Nibbāna—namely, the four establishments of mindfulness.

3. “What are the four? Here, monks, a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.26 He dwells contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world. He dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world. He dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.27

[contemplation of the body]

[1. Mindfulness of Breathing]

4. “And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating the body in the body? Here a monk, gone to the forest, to the foot of a tree, or to an empty hut, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, straightened his body, and established mindfulness in front of him, just mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out. Breathing in long, he understands: ‘I breathe in long’; or breathing out long, he understands: ‘I breathe out long.’ Breathing in short, he understands: ‘I breathe in short’; or breathing out short, he understands: ‘I breathe out short.’28 He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in experiencing the whole body’; he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out experiencing the whole body.’29 He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in tranquilizing the bodily formation’; he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation.’30 Just as a skilled lathe-worker or his apprentice, when making a long turn, understands: ‘I make a long turn’; or, when making a short turn, understands: ‘I make a short turn’; so too, breathing in long, a monk understands: ‘I breathe in long’ … he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation.’

5. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and externally.31 Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising and vanishing.32 Or else mindfulness that ‘there is a body’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[2. The Four Postures]

6. “Again, monks, when walking, a monk understands: ‘I am walking’; when standing, he understands: ‘I am standing’; when sitting, he understands: ‘I am sitting’; when lying down, he understands: ‘I am lying down’; or he understands accordingly however his body is disposed.33

7. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[3. Clear Comprehension]

8. “Again, monks, a monk is one who acts with clear comprehension when going forward and returning;34 who acts with clear comprehension when looking ahead and looking away; who acts with clear comprehension when bending and stretching his limbs; who acts with clear comprehension when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe and bowl; who acts with clear comprehension when eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting; who acts with clear comprehension when defecating and urinating; who acts with clear comprehension when walking, standing, sitting, falling asleep, waking up, talking, and keeping silent.

9. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[4. Unattractiveness of the Body]

10. “Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair, bounded by skin, as full of many kinds of impurity thus: ‘In this body there are head-hairs, body-hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentery, stomach, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, and urine.’35 Just as though there were a bag with an opening at both ends full of many sorts of grain, such as hill rice, red rice, beans, peas, millet, and white rice, and a man with good eyes were to open it and review it thus: ‘This is hill rice, this is red rice, these are beans, these are peas, this is millet, this is white rice’; so too, a monk reviews this same body … as full of many kinds of impurity thus: ‘In this body there are head-hairs … and urine.’

11. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[5. Elements]

12. “Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body, however it is placed, however disposed, as consisting of elements thus: ‘In this body there are the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the air element.’36 Just as though a skilled butcher or his apprentice had killed a cow and were seated at the crossroads with it cut up into pieces; so too, a monk reviews this same body … as consisting of elements thus: ‘In this body there are the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the air element.’

13. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[6–14. The Nine Charnel Ground Contemplations]

14. “Again, monks, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, one, two, or three days dead, bloated, livid, and oozing matter, a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’37

15. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

16. “Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals, or various kinds of worms, a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’

17. “…That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

18–24. “Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, a skeleton with flesh and blood, held together with sinews … a fleshless skeleton smeared with blood, held together with sinews … a skeleton without flesh and blood, held together with sinews … disconnected bones scattered in all directions—here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, here a shin-bone, there a thigh-bone, here a hip-bone, there a back-bone, here the skull—a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’38

25. “…That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

26–30. “Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, bones bleached white, the color of shells … bones heaped up … bones more than a year old, rotted and crumbled to dust, a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’

31. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that ‘there is a body’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[contemplation of feeling]

32. “And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating feelings in feelings?39 Here, when feeling a pleasant feeling, a monk understands: ‘I feel a pleasant feeling’; when feeling a painful feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a painful feeling’; when feeling a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.’ When feeling a carnal pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a carnal pleasant feeling’; when feeling a spiritual pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a spiritual pleasant feeling’; when feeling a carnal painful feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a carnal painful feeling’; when feeling a spiritual painful feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a spiritual painful feeling’; when feeling a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling’; when feeling a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.’

33. “In this way he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings internally, or he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings externally, or he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of both arising and vanishing.40 Or else mindfulness that ‘there is feeling’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings.

[contemplation of mind]

34. “And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating mind in mind?41 Here a monk understands a mind with lust as a mind with lust, and a mind without lust as a mind without lust. He understands a mind with hatred as a mind with hatred, and a mind without hatred as a mind without hatred. He understands a mind with delusion as a mind with delusion, and a mind without delusion as a mind without delusion. He understands a contracted mind as contracted, and a distracted mind as distracted. He understands an exalted mind as exalted, and an unexalted mind as unexalted. He understands a surpassable mind as surpassable, and an unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable. He understands a concentrated mind as concentrated, and an unconcentrated mind as unconcentrated. He understands a liberated mind as liberated, and an unliberated mind as unliberated.42

35. “In this way he dwells contemplating mind in mind internally, or he dwells contemplating mind in mind externally, or he dwells contemplating mind in mind both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in mind its nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in mind its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in mind its nature of both arising and vanishing.43 Or else mindfulness that ‘there is mind’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating mind as mind.

[contemplation of phenomena]

[1. The Five Hindrances]

36. “And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena? Here a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five hindrances.44 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five hindrances? Here, when there is sensual desire in him, a monk understands: ‘There is sensual desire in me’; or when there is no sensual desire in him, he understands: ‘There is no sensual desire in me’; and he also understands how unarisen sensual desire arises, and how arisen sensual desire is abandoned, and how abandoned sensual desire does not arise again in the future.’45

“When there is ill will in him … When there is dullness and drowsiness in him … When there is restlessness and remorse in him … When there is doubt in him, a monk understands: ‘There is doubt in me’; or when there is no doubt in him, he understands: ‘There is no doubt in me’; and he also understands how the unarisen doubt arises, and how arisen doubt is abandoned, and how abandoned doubt does not arise again in the future.

37. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena externally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that ‘there are phenomena’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five hindrances.

[2. The Five Aggregates]

38. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five aggregates subject to clinging.46 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five aggregates affected by clinging? Here a monk understands: ‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling, such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its origin, such its passing away; such are the volitional formations, such their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.’47

39. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five aggregates subject to clinging.

[3. The Six Sense Bases]

40. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases.48 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases? Here a monk understands the eye, he understands forms, and he understands the fetter that arises dependent on both; and he also understands how the unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen fetter is abandoned, and how the abandoned fetter does not arise again in the future.49

“He understands the ear, he understands sounds.… He understands the nose, he understands odors.… He understands the tongue, he understands flavors.… He understands the body, he understands tactile objects.… He understands the mind, he understands phenomena, and he understands the fetter that arises dependent on both; and he also understands how the unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen fetter is abandoned, and how the abandoned fetter does not arise again in the future.

41. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases.

[4. The Seven Enlightenment Factors]

42. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors.50 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors? Here, when there is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: ‘There is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in me’; or when there is no mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, he understands: ‘There is no mindfulness enlightenment factor in me’; and he also understands how the unarisen mindfulness enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen mindfulness enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development.

“When there is the discrimination of phenomena enlightenment factor in him… When there is the energy enlightenment factor in him … When there is the rapture enlightenment factor in him … When there is the tranquillity enlightenment factor in him … When there is the concentration enlightenment factor in him … When there is the equanimity enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: ‘There is the equanimity enlightenment factor in me’; or when there is no equanimity enlightenment factor in him, he understands: ‘There is no equanimity enlightenment factor in me’; and he also understands how the unarisen equanimity enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen equanimity enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development.51

43. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors.

[5. The Four Noble Truths]

44. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths.52 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths? Here a monk understands as it really is: ‘This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’

45. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena externally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that ‘there are phenomena’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths.

[conclusion]

46. “Monks, if anyone should develop these four establishments of mindfulness in such a way for seven years, one of two fruits could be expected for him: either final knowledge here and now, or if there is a trace of clinging left, nonreturning.53

“Let alone seven years, monks. If anyone should develop these four establishments of mindfulness in such a way for six years … for five years … for four years … for three years … for two years … for one year, one of two fruits could be expected for him: either final knowledge here and now, or if there is a trace of clinging left, nonreturning.

“Let alone one year, monks. If anyone should develop these four establishments of mindfulness in such a way for seven months … for six months … for five months … for four months … for three months … for two months … for one month … for half a month, one of two fruits could be expected for him: either final knowledge here and now, or if there is a trace of clinging left, nonreturning.

“Let alone half a month, monks. If anyone should develop these four establishments of mindfulness in such a way for seven days, one of two fruits could be expected for him: either final knowledge here and now, or if there is a trace of clinging left, nonreturning.

47. “So it was with reference to this that it was said: ‘Monks, this is the direct path for the purification of beings, for the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the passing away of pain and dejection, for the attainment of the true way, for the realization of Nibbāna—namely, the four establishments of mindfulness.’”

That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and delighted in the Blessed One’s words.

(MN 10: Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta; I 55–63)

At Sāvatthī, the Venerable Ānanda approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said: “Venerable sir, is there one thing which, when developed and cultivated, fulfills four things? And four things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill seven things? And seven things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill two things?”

“There is, Ānanda, one thing which, when developed and cultivated, fulfills four things; and four things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill seven things; and seven things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill two things.”

“But, venerable sir, what is the one thing which, when developed and cultivated, fulfills four things; and the four things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill seven things; and the seven things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill two things?”

“Concentration by mindfulness of breathing, Ānanda, is the one thing which, when developed and cultivated, fulfills the four establishments of mindfulness. The four establishments of mindfulness, when developed and cultivated, fulfill the seven factors of enlightenment. The seven factors of enlightenment, when developed and cultivated, fulfill true knowledge and liberation.

[i. Fulfilling the four establishments of mindfulness]

“How, Ānanda, is concentration by mindfulness of breathing developed and cultivated so that it fulfills the four establishments of mindfulness? Here, Ānanda, a monk, having gone to the forest, to the foot of a tree, or to an empty hut, sits down.54 Having folded his legs crosswise, straightened his body, and set up mindfulness in front of him, just mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out. “Breathing in long, he knows: ‘I breathe in long’; or breathing out long, he knows: ‘I breathe out long.’ Breathing in short, he knows: ‘I breathe in short’; or breathing out short, he knows: ‘I breathe out short.’ He trains thus: ‘Experiencing the whole body, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Experiencing the whole body, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the bodily formation, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the bodily formation, I will breathe out.’

“He trains thus: ‘Experiencing rapture, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Experiencing rapture, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Experiencing happiness, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Experiencing happiness, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Experiencing the mental formation, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Experiencing the mental formation, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the mental formation, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the mental formation, I will breathe out.’55

“He trains thus: ‘Experiencing the mind, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Experiencing the mind, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Gladdening the mind, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Gladdening the mind, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Concentrating the mind, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Concentrating the mind, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Liberating the mind, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Liberating the mind, I will breathe out.’56

“He trains thus: ‘Contemplating impermanence, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Contemplating impermanence, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Contemplating fading away, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Contemplating fading away, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Contemplating cessation, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Contemplating cessation, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Contemplating relinquishment, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Contemplating relinquishment, I will breathe out.’57

“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk, when breathing in long, knows: ‘I breathe in long’ … [as above] … when he trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the bodily formation, I will breathe out’—on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world. For what reason? I call this a certain kind of body, Ānanda, that is, breathing in and breathing out. Therefore, Ānanda, on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.

“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk trains thus: ‘Experiencing rapture, I will breathe in’ … when he trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the mental formation, I will breathe out’—on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world. For what reason? I call this a certain kind of feeling, Ānanda, that is, close attention to breathing in and breathing out.58 Therefore, Ānanda, on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.

“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk trains thus: ‘Experiencing the mind, I will breathe in’ … when he trains thus: ‘Liberating the mind, I will breathe out’—on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world. For what reason? I say, Ānanda, that there is no development of concentration by mindfulness of breathing for one who is muddled and who lacks clear comprehension. Therefore, Ānanda, on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.

“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk trains thus: ‘Contemplating impermanence, I will breathe in’ … when he trains thus: ‘Contemplating relinquishment, I will breathe out’—on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world. Having seen with wisdom what is the abandoning of longing and dejection, he is one who looks on closely with equanimity.59 Therefore, Ānanda, on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.

“It is, Ānanda, when concentration by mindfulness of breathing is developed and cultivated in this way that it fulfills the four establishments of mindfulness.

[ii. Fulfilling the seven factors of enlightenment]

“And how, Ānanda, are the four establishments of mindfulness developed and cultivated so that they fulfill the seven factors of enlightenment?

“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, on that occasion unmuddled mindfulness is established in that monk. Whenever, Ānanda, unmuddled mindfulness has been established in a monk, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of mindfulness is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of mindfulness goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.60

“Dwelling thus mindfully, he discriminates that phenomenon with wisdom, examines it, makes an investigation of it. Whenever, Ānanda, a monk dwelling thus mindfully discriminates that phenomenon with wisdom, examines it, makes an investigation of it, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena61 is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

“While he discriminates that phenomenon with wisdom, examines it, makes an investigation of it, his energy is aroused without slackening. Whenever, Ānanda, a monk’s energy is aroused without slackening as he discriminates that phenomenon with wisdom, examines it, makes an investigation of it, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of energy is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of energy; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of energy goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

“When his energy is aroused, there arises in him spiritual rapture. Whenever, Ānanda, spiritual rapture arises in a monk whose energy is aroused, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of rapture is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of rapture; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of rapture goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

“For one whose mind is uplifted by rapture the body becomes tranquil and the mind becomes tranquil. Whenever, Ānanda, the body becomes tranquil and the mind becomes tranquil in a monk whose mind is uplifted by rapture, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of tranquillity is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of tranquillity; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of tranquillity goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

“For one whose body is tranquil and who is happy the mind becomes concentrated. Whenever, Ānanda, the mind becomes concentrated in a monk whose body is tranquil and who is happy, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of concentration is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of concentration; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of concentration goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

“He becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated. Whenever, Ānanda, a monk becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of equanimity; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings … mind in mind … phenomena in phenomena, on that occasion unmuddled mindfulness is established in that monk. Whenever, Ānanda, unmuddled mindfulness has been established in a monk, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of mindfulness is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of mindfulness goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

[All should be elaborated as in the case of the first establishment of mindfulness.]

“He becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated. Whenever, Ānanda, a monk becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of equanimity; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.

“It is, Ānanda, when the four establishments of mindfulness are developed and cultivated in this way that they fulfill the seven factors of enlightenment.

[iii. Fulfilling true knowledge and liberation]

“How, Ānanda, are the seven factors of enlightenment developed and cultivated so that they fulfill true knowledge and liberation?

“Here, Ānanda, a monk develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release. He develops the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena … the enlightenment factor of energy … the enlightenment factor of rapture … the enlightenment factor of tranquillity … the enlightenment factor of concentration … the enlightenment factor of equanimity, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release.

“It is, Ānanda, when the seven factors of enlightenment are developed and cultivated in this way that they fulfill true knowledge and liberation.”

(SN 54:13; V 328–33 ≠ MN 118.15–43; III 82–88)

On one occasion the Venerable Sāriputta was dwelling at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park.62 Then one morning he dressed and, taking bowl and robe, entered Sāvatthī for alms. When he had walked for alms in Sāvatthī and had returned from the almsround, after his meal he went to the Blind Men’s Grove for the day’s abiding. Having plunged into the Blind Men’s Grove, he sat down at the foot of a tree for the day’s abiding.

Then, in the evening, the Venerable Sāriputta emerged from seclusion and went to Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. The Venerable Ānanda saw him coming in the distance and said to him: “Friend Sāriputta, your faculties are serene, your facial complexion is pure and bright. In what dwelling have you spent the day?”

“Here, friend, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, I entered and dwelled in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the first jhāna,’ or ‘I have attained the first jhāna,’ or ‘I have emerged from the first jhāna.’”

“It must be because I-making, mine-making, and the underlying tendency to conceit have been thoroughly uprooted in your mind for a long time that such thoughts did not occur to you.”63

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the subsiding of thought and examination, I entered and dwelled in the second jhāna, which has internal confidence and unification of mind, is without thought and examination, and has rapture and happiness born of concentration. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the second jhāna,’ or ‘I have attained the second jhāna,’ or ‘I have emerged from the second jhāna.’”

“It must be because I-making, mine-making, and the underlying tendency to conceit have been thoroughly uprooted in your mind for a long time that such thoughts did not occur to you.”

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the fading away as well of rapture, I dwelled equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, I experienced happiness with the body; I entered and dwelled in the third jhāna, of which the noble ones declare: ‘He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.’ Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the third jhāna….’” [Complete as above.]

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous passing away of joy and displeasure, I entered and dwelled in the fourth jhāna, which is neither painful nor pleasant and includes the purification of mindfulness by equanimity. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the fourth jhāna….’”

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the complete transcending of perceptions of forms, with the passing away of perceptions of sensory impingement, with nonattention to perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite,’ I entered and dwelled in the base of the infinity of space. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the base of the infinity of space….’”

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite,’ I entered and dwelled in the base of the infinity of consciousness. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the base of the infinity of consciousness….’”

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing,’ I entered and dwelled in the base of nothingness. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the base of nothingness….’”

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by completely transcending the base of nothingness, I entered and dwelled in the base of neither-perception-nor-nonperception. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the base of neither-perception-nor-nonperception….’”

[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by completely transcending the base of neither-perception-nor-nonperception, I entered and dwelled in the cessation of perception and feeling. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the cessation of perception and feeling,’ or ‘I have attained the cessation of perception and feeling,’ or ‘I have emerged from the cessation of perception and feeling.’”64

“It must be because I-making, mine-making, and the underlying tendency to conceit have been thoroughly uprooted in your mind for a long time that such thoughts did not occur to you.”

(SN 28:1–9, combined; III 235–38)

____________________

1.These are the stages of stream-entry, once-returning, nonreturning, and arahantship. See chapter X.

2.See, e.g., AN 9:3 (IV 358) = Ud 4:1.

3.A translation of the sutta together with its commentary and substantial excerpts from the subcommentary can be found in Soma Thera, The Way of Mindfulness. Two excellent modern expositions, which also include translations of the sutta, are: Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, and Anālayo, Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization.

4.Mp: When serenity is developed independently of insight, it leads to the suppression of the five hindrances, the first of which is sensual lust, and culminates in the “higher mind” (adhicitta) of the jhānas, characterized by the absence of lust. But it is only when serenity is developed in conjunction with insight that it can give rise to the noble path, which eradicates the underlying tendency to sensual lust (by the path of nonreturning) and attachment to existence (by the path of arahantship). Mp interprets serenity here in this second sense, presumably on account of the last sentence of the sutta.

5.Mp: It is the wisdom of the supramundane path (magga-paññā) that is developed. The “ignorance abandoned” is the great ignorance at the root of the cycle of existence.

6.Arahantship is often described as “taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom” (anāsava-cetovimutti-paññāvimutti). Mp explains “liberation of mind” (cetovimutti) as the concentration connected with the fruit (of arahantship), “liberation by wisdom” (paññāvimutti) as the wisdom connected with the fruit. Mp is referring to the “meditative attainment of the fruit of arahantship” (arahatta-phala-samāpatti), a supramundane meditative absorption in which the arahant experiences the bliss of Nibbāna.

7.Samathapubbaṅgamaṃ vipassanaṃ. Mp: “This refers to a meditator who first obtains serenity and then takes up insight meditation.” The commentators call such a meditator one who makes serenity the vehicle of practice (samathayānika). See Vism 587; Ppn 18:3.

8.“The path” (magga) is the first supramundane path, that of stream-entry. To “develop that path,” according to Mp, means to practice for the attainment of the three higher paths. On the ten fetters, see pp. 374–75; on the seven underlying tendencies, see p. 426 (chapter I, n.5).

9.Vipassanāpubbaṅgamaṃ samathaṃ. Mp: “This refers to one who by natural bent first attains to insight and then, based on insight, produces concentration.” In the commentarial literature this is called one who makes insight the vehicle (vipassanāyānika). See Vism 588; Ppn 18:4.

10.Samathavipassanaṃ yuganaddhaṃ. In this mode of practice, one enters the first jhāna and then, after emerging from it, applies insight to that experience, i.e., one sees the five aggregates of the jhāna (form, feeling, perception, etc.) as impermanent, bound up with suffering, and nonself. Then one enters the second jhāna and contemplates it with insight. One applies the same procedure to the other jhānas as well until the path of stream-entry, etc., is realized.

11.Dhammuddhaccaviggahitaṃ mānasaṃ hoti. Mp says that “agitation” (uddhacca) arises here as a reaction to the ten “corruptions of insight” (vipassanūpakkilesa) that one misunderstands as indicating path-attainment. (On the corruptions of insight, see Vism 633–38; Ppn 20:105–28.) It is possible, however, that the “agitation about the teaching” is mental distress brought on by eagerness to realize the Dhamma. This state of spiritual anxiety, when suddenly resolved, can sometimes precipitate an instantaneous experience of awakening. For an example, see the story of Bāhiya Dārucīriya at Ud 1:10.

12.Mp explains internal serenity of mind (ajjhattaṃ cetosamatha) as the concentration of full absorption (i.e., jhāna), and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena (adhipaññādhammavipassanā) as the insight knowledge discerning formations (saṅkhārapariggāhaka-vipassanāñāṇa).

13.“Formations” (saṅkhārā) are the conditioned phenomena comprised in the five aggregates. On the aggregates, see Texts IX,4(1)(a)–(e).

14.Spk applies the scholastic distinction of the three types of escape (nissaraṇa) to each hindrance. One escapes from the hindrance by suppression (vikkhambhananissaraṇa) through jhāna; one escapes in a particular respect (tadaṅganissaraṇa) through insight; and one escapes by eradication (samucchedanissaraṇa) through the supramundane path. Thus: (1) sensual desire is suppressed by the first jhāna based on the unattractive nature of the body (asubha; see Text VIII,8 §10) and eradicated by the path of arahantship (since kāmacchanda is here interpreted widely enough to include desire for any object, not only sensual desire); (2) ill will is suppressed by the first jhāna based on loving-kindness and eradicated by the path of nonreturning; (3) dullness and drowsiness are suppressed by the perception of light (i.e., visualization of a bright light, like the disc of the sun or the full moon) and eradicated by the path of arahantship; (4) restlessness and remorse are suppressed by serenity, remorse is eradicated by the path of non-returning and restlessness by the path of arahantship; and (5) doubt is suppressed by the defining of phenomena (dhammavavatthāna; see Vism 587– 89; Ppn 18:3–8) and eradicated by the path of stream-entry.

15.These are the three “wrong thoughts,” opposite of right thought or right intention, the second factor of the Noble Eightfold Path. See Text VII,2.

16.Dhammavitakka. Mp takes this to refer to the ten “corruptions of insight,” but it seems more natural to understand it simply as obsessive reflections about the Dhamma.

17.This refers to the preliminary conditions for the six direct knowledges (abhiññā), to be described just below. The preliminary condition for the five mundane direct knowledges is the fourth jhāna. The preliminary condition for arahantship, the sixth direct knowledge, is insight. This direct knowledge alone is supramundane.

18.Ps says the higher mind (adhicitta) is the mind of the eight meditative attainments used as a basis for insight; it is called “higher mind” because it is higher than the ordinary (good) mind of the ten wholesome courses of action. The five “signs” (nimitta) may be understood as practical methods for removing distracting thoughts. They should be resorted to only when the distractions become persistent or obtrusive; at other times the meditator should remain with the primary subject of meditation.

19.Ps: When thoughts of sensual desire arise directed toward living beings, the “other sign” is the meditation on the unattractive nature of the body (see Text VIII,8 §10); when the thoughts are directed to inanimate things, the “other sign” is attention to impermanence. When thoughts of hate arise directed toward living beings, the “other sign” is the meditation on loving-kindness; when they are directed to inanimate things, the “other sign” is attention to the elements (see Text VIII,8 §12). The remedy for thoughts connected with delusion is living under a teacher, studying the Dhamma, inquiring into its meaning, listening to the Dhamma, and inquiring into causes.

20.Vitakka-saṅkhāra-saṇṭhānaṃ. Glossing saṅkhāra here as condition, cause, or root, Ps interprets the compound to mean “stopping the cause of the thought.” This is accomplished by inquiring, when an unwholesome thought has arisen: “What is its cause? What is the cause of its cause?” etc. Such an inquiry slows down, and eventually cuts off, the flow of unwholesome thoughts.

21.Tadārammaṇaṃ, lit. “with that (one) as the object.” Ps: First one develops loving-kindness toward the person who addresses one with any of the five courses of wrong speech, then one directs that mind of loving-kindness toward all beings, making the entire world the object.

22.Mahānāma was a close relative of the Buddha, a prominent member of the Sakyan clan.

23.The phrases “arrived at the fruit” (āgataphala) and “understood the teaching” (viññātasāsana) indicate that he is asking about the meditations of a noble disciple at the minimum level of stream-enterer. However, such meditations can also be profitably practiced by people at any level, for they temporarily cleanse the mind of the defilements and lead to concentration.

24.I abridge the text, which here enumerates the different heavenly realms.

25.The Pāli reads ekāyano ayaṃ bhikkhave maggo. Almost all translators have understood this statement to be a declaration that satipaṭṭhāna is an exclusive path. Thus Soma Thera renders it: “This is the only way, O bhikkhus,” and Nyanaponika Thera: “This is the sole way, monks.” However, at MN 12.37–42 ekāyana magga has the unambiguous meaning of “a path that goes in one way only,” and that seems the meaning that fits best here as well. The point seems to be simply that satipaṭṭhāna goes in one direction, toward “the purification of beings … the realization of Nibbāna.”

26.Ps says the repetition “contemplating the body in the body” (kāye kāyānupassī) has the purpose of precisely determining the object of contemplation and of isolating that object from others with which it might be confused. Thus, in this practice, the body should be contemplated as such, and not one’s feelings, ideas, and emotions concerning it. The phrase also means that the body should be contemplated simply as a body and not as a man, a woman, a self, or a living being. Parallel considerations apply to the repetitions with regard to each of the other three establishments of mindfulness. “Longing and dejection” (abhijjhā-domanassaṃ), according to Ps, imply sensual desire and ill will, the chief among the five mental hindrances.

27.On the structure of the discourse to follow, see pp. 262–63.

28.The practice of mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati) does not involves a deliberate attempt to regulate the breath, as in hatha yoga, but an effort to fix awareness continuously on the breath as one breathes at a natural rhythm. Mindfulness is set up at the nostrils or the upper lip, wherever the impact of the breath is felt most distinctly. The length of the breath is noted but not consciously controlled. The complete development of this meditation subject is explained in Text VIII,9. A detailed explanation of mindfulness of breathing according to the commentarial system is at Vism 266–93; Ppn 8:145–244. See too the collection of texts translated by Ñāṇamoli, Mindfulness of Breathing.

29.Ps, in line with other Pāli commentaries, explains “experiencing the whole body” (sabbakāyapaṭisaṃvedī) to mean that the meditator becomes aware of each in-breath and out-breath through its three phases of beginning, middle, and end. This interpretation is difficult to square with the literal words of the original text, which may have originally intended simply a global awareness of the entire body. It is also difficult to see how -paṭisaṃvedī could mean “is aware of”; this suffix is based on the verb paṭisaṃvedeti meaning “to experience” or “to feel,” which has a different nuance from “awareness.”

30.The “bodily formation” (kāyasaṅkhāra) is defined as in-and-out breathing at MN 44.13 (I 301) and SN 41:6 (IV 293). Thus, as Ps explains, with the successful development of this practice, the meditator’s breathing becomes increasingly more quiet, tranquil, and peaceful.

31.Ps: “Internally”: contemplating the breathing in his own body. “Externally”: contemplating the breathing taking place in the body of another. “Internally and externally”: contemplating the breathing in his own body and in the body of another alternately, with uninterrupted attention. A similar explanation applies to the refrain that follows each of the other sections, except that under the contemplation of feeling, mind, and phenomena, the contemplation externally, apart from those possessing telepathic powers, must be inferential. It is also impossible for those without telepathic powers to directly contemplate the breathing of another, apart from observation of the expansion and contraction of the chest, so contemplation in this case too must be inferential.

32.Ps explains that the arising nature (samudayadhamma) of the body can be observed in its conditioned origination through ignorance, craving, kamma, and food, as well as in the moment-by-moment origination of material phenomena in the body. In the case of mindfulness of breathing, an additional condition is the physiological apparatus of respiration. The “vanishing nature” (vayadhamma) of the body is seen in the cessation of bodily phenomena through the cessation of their conditions as well as in the momentary dissolution of bodily phenomena.

33.The understanding of the bodily postures referred to in this exercise is not our normal knowledge of our bodily activity, but a close, constant, and careful awareness of the body in every position, coupled with an analytical examination intended to dispel the delusion of a self as the agent of bodily movement.

34.Sampajañña, clear comprehension, is analyzed in the commentaries into four types: (1) clear comprehension of the purpose of one’s action; (2) clear comprehension of the suitability of one’s means to the achievement of one’s purpose; (3) clear comprehension of the domain, that is, not abandoning the subject of meditation during one’s daily routine; and (4) clear comprehension of reality, the awareness that behind one’s activities there is no abiding self. See Soma, The Way of Mindfulness, pp. 60–100; Nyanaponika, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, pp. 46–55.

35.A detailed explanation of this practice, according to the commentarial method, is at Vism 239–266; Ppn 8:42–144. The mesentery is a fold of tissue that anchors the small intestine to the back of the abdominal wall.

36.These four elements are the primary attributes of matter—the earth element (pathavīdhātu) is solidity; the water element (āpodhātu), cohesion; the fire element (tejodhātu), heat; and the air element (vāyodhātu), pressure or distension. For a more detailed account of the contemplation of elements, see Text IX,4(3)(c). For the commentarial explanation, see Vism 347–72; Ppn 11:27–126.

37.The phrase “as though” (seyyathāpi) suggests that this meditation, and those to follow, need not be based upon actual observation of a decaying corpse but can be performed imaginatively. “This same body” is, of course, the meditator’s own body.

38.Each of the four types of corpse mentioned here, and the three types below, may be taken as a separate and self-sufficient subject of meditation; or the entire set may be used as a progressive series for impressing on the mind the idea of the body’s transience and insubstantiality. The progression continues in §§26– 30.

39.Feeling (vedanā) signifies the affective quality of experience, bodily and mental, either pleasant, painful, or neither, i.e., neutral feeling. Examples of the “carnal” and “spiritual” varieties of these feelings are given at MN 137.9–15 (III 217–19) under the rubric of the six kinds of joy, grief, and equanimity based respectively on the household life and renunciation.

40.The conditions for the arising and vanishing of feeling are the same as those for the body (see p. 442 (chapter VIII, n. 32) except that food is replaced by contact, since contact is the condition for feeling).

41.Mind (citta) as an object of contemplation refers to the general state and level of consciousness. Since consciousness itself is the bare knowing or cognizing of an object, the quality of any state of mind is determined by its associated mental factors, such as lust, hate, and delusion or their opposites.

42.The examples of citta given in this passage contrast states of mind of wholesome and unwholesome, or developed and undeveloped character. The pair “contracted” and “distracted,” however, consists of unwholesome opposites, the former due to dullness and drowsiness, the latter to restlessness and remorse. Ps explains “exalted mind” and “unsurpassable mind” as the mind pertaining to the meditative attainments (jhānas and formless states), “unexalted mind” and “surpassable mind” as the mind pertaining to sense-sphere consciousness. The commentary says “liberated mind” should be understood as a mind temporarily and partly freed from defilements through insight or the jhānas. Since the practice of satipaṭṭhāna pertains to the preliminary phase of the path, the commentary holds that this last category should not be understood as a mind liberated by attainment of the supramundane paths; perhaps, however, this interpretation should not be excluded.

43.The conditions for the arising and vanishing of mind are the same as those for the body except that food is replaced by name-and-form, the condition for consciousness.

44.The five hindrances (pañca nīvaraṇā): the main inner impediments to the development of concentration and insight. See above, Text VIII,3.

45.See p. 440 (chapter VIII, n.147).

46.On the five aggregates, see pp. 22, 306–7, and Texts IX,4(1)(a)–(e).

47.The origin and passing away of the five aggregates can be understood in two ways: (1) through their origination and cessation in dependence on their conditions (see Text IX,4(1)(a)); and (2) through their discernible arising, change, and vanishing (see SN 22:37–38). The two ways are not mutually exclusive but can be conceptually distinguished.

48.On the six sense bases, see ppp. 309–11 and Texts IX,4(2)(a)–(e).

49.The fetter is the desire and lust (chandarāga) that binds the sense faculties to their objects; see SN 35:232.

50.On the enlightenment factors, see Text VIII,9.

51.The Pāli commentaries give detailed information about the conditions that lead to the maturation of the enlightenment factors. See Soma Thera, The Way of Mindfulness, pp. 134–149.

52.The longer Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta in DN defines and elaborates on each of the Four Noble Truths. See too MN 141.

53.Final knowledge (aññā) is the arahant’s knowledge of liberation. Nonreturning (anāgāmitā) is the attainment of the state of a nonreturner.

54.From this point on, the sutta closely corresponds with the second part of the Ānāpānasati Sutta (MN 118), the first part of which is a prelude to the instructions on mindfulness of breathing. The first tetrad is identical with the passage on mindfulness of breathing in the “contemplation of the body” section of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta just above.

55.The “mental formation” (cittasaṅkhāra) is perception and feeling; see MN 44 (I 301) = SN 41:6 (IV 293).

56.Vism 289; Ppn 8:233: “Liberating the mind” from the hindrances by the first jhāna, and from the grosser jhāna factors by attaining successively higher jhānas; and liberating it from the cognitive distortions by means of insight knowledge.

57.Vism 290–291; Ppn 8:234–37: “Contemplating impermanence” (aniccānupassī) is contemplating the five aggregates as impermanent because they undergo rise and fall and change, or because they undergo momentary dissolution. This tetrad deals entirely with insight, unlike the other three, which can be interpreted by way of both serenity and insight. “Contemplating fading away” (virāgānupassī) and “contemplating cessation” (nirodhānupassī) can be understood both as the insight into the momentary destruction and cessation of phenomena and as the supramundane path, which realizes Nibbāna as the fading away of lust (virāga, dispassion) and the cessation of formations. “Contemplating relinquishment” (paṭinissaggānupassī) is giving up (pariccāga) or abandoning (pahāna) defilements through insight and entering into (pakkhandana) Nibbāna by attainment of the path.

58.Spk: Attention is not actually feeling, but this is a heading of the teaching. In this tetrad, in the first phrase feeling is spoken of indirectly under the heading of rapture (which is not a feeling), in the second phrase it is referred to directly as happiness (= pleasant feeling). In the third and fourth phrases, feeling is included in the mental formation.

59.Spk: Having seen with wisdom, etc. Here, “longing” is just the hindrance of sensual desire; by “dejection” the hindrance of ill will is shown. This tetrad is stated by way of insight only. These two hindrances are the first among the five hindrances, the first section in the contemplation of mental phenomena. Thus he says this to show the beginning of the contemplation of mental phenomena. By “abandoning” is meant the knowledge that effects abandoning, e.g., one abandons the perception of permanence by contemplation of impermanence. By the words “having seen with wisdom” he shows the succession of insights thus: “With one insight knowledge (he sees) the knowledge of abandonment consisting in the knowledges of impermanence, dispassion, cessation, and relinquishment; and that too (he sees) by still another.” He is one who looks on closely with equanimity: one is said to look on with equanimity (at the mind) that has fared along the path [Spk-pṭ: by neither exerting nor restraining the mind of meditative development that has properly fared along the middle way], and by the presentation as a unity [Spk-pṭ: since there is nothing further to be done in that respect when the mind has reached one-pointedness]. One “looks on with equanimity” at the object.

60.Satisambojjhaṅga. Bojjhaṅga is compounded from bodhi + aṅga. At SN 46:5, they are explained as the factors that lead to enlightenment. The three phrases used to describe the cultivation of each enlightenment factor can be understood to depict three successive stages of development. “He arouses” is its initial arousal; “he develops” is its gradual maturation; and “it goes to fulfillment by development” is its culmination.

61.Dhammavicayasambojjhaṅga. At SN 46:2 (V 66), the “nutriment” for the arising of this factor of enlightenment is said to be frequently giving careful attention to wholesome and unwholesome mental phenomena, blamable and blameless states, inferior and superior states, dark and bright states with their counterparts. Although this factor of enlightenment is identified with paññā or wisdom, the above passage suggests that its initial function is to discriminate between the good and bad mental phenomena that become apparent with the deepening of mindfulness.

62.Sāriputta was one of the Buddha’s two chief disciples, the one who excelled in wisdom. For a biography, see Nyanaponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, chapter 1.

63.“I-making” (ahaṅkāra) is the function of view of self; “mine-making” (mamaṅkāra), of craving. The root conceit is the conceit “I am” (asmimāna), so the “underlying tendency to conceit” is also responsible for “I-making.”

64.Saññāvedayitanirodha. Also known as nirodhasamāpatti, the attainment of cessation, this is a special meditative attainment said to be accessible solely to nonreturners and arahants. As its name suggests, it involves the total cessation of perceptual and affective functions, and according to the commentaries, of consciousness and all its associated mental factors. For a detailed discussion according to the commentarial system, see Vism 702–9; Ppn 23:16–52.