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INTRODUCTION

Is it the case, as some scholars hold, that the Buddha’s original message was exclusively one of world-transcending liberation, with little relevance for people stuck in the routines of worldly life? Did the ancient Buddhists believe that it was only in the monastery that the real practice of the Dhamma began and that only those who left the world were considered proper receptacles of the teaching? Did the Buddha’s teachings for the laity have no more than a token significance? Were they mainly injunctions to acquire merit by offering material support to the monastic order and its members so that they could become monks and nuns (preferably monks) in future lives and then get down to the real practice?

At certain periods, in almost all traditions, Buddhists have lent support to the assumptions that underlie these questions. They have spurned concern with the present life and dismissed the world as a valley of tears, a deceptive illusion, convinced that the sign of spiritual maturity is an exclusive focus on emancipation from the round of birth and death. Monks have sometimes displayed little interest in showing those still stuck in the world how to use the wisdom of the Dhamma to deal with the problems of ordinary life. Householders in turn have seen little hope of spiritual progress in their own chosen mode of life and have thus resigned themselves merely to gaining merit by offering material support to the monks.

While the Nikāyas reveal the crown of the Buddha’s teachings to lie in the path to final release from suffering, it would be a mistake to reduce the teachings, so diverse in the original sources, to their transcendent pinnacle. We must again recall the statement that a Buddha arises “for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude … out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans” (p. 50). The function of a Buddha is to discover, realize, and proclaim the Dhamma in its full range and depth, and this involves a comprehensive understanding of the varied applications of the Dhamma in all its multiple dimensions. A Buddha not only penetrates to the unconditioned state of perfect bliss that lies beyond saṃsāra, outside the pale of birth, aging, and death; he not only proclaims the path to full enlightenment and final liberation; but he also illuminates the many ways the Dhamma applies to the complex conditions of human life for people still immersed in the world.

The Dhamma, in its broadest sense, is the immanent, invariable order of the universe in which truth, lawful regularity, and virtue are inextricably merged. This cosmic Dhamma is reflected in the human mind as the aspiration for truth, spiritual beauty, and goodness; it is expressed in human conduct as wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental action. The Dhamma has institutional embodiments as well as expressions in the lives of individuals who look upon it as their source of guidance in the proper conduct of life. These embodiments are both secular and spiritual. Buddhist tradition sees the responsibility for upholding the Dhamma in the secular domain as falling to the legendary wheel-turning monarch (rājā cakkavattī). The wheel-turning monarch is the benevolent ruler who governs his kingdom in accordance with the highest ethical norms (dhammiko dhammarājā) and thereby peacefully unites the world under a reign of universal justice and prosperity. As Text IV,1(1) shows, within the spiritual domain, the Buddha is the counterpart of the wheel-turning monarch. Like the latter, the Buddha relies on the Dhamma and reveres the Dhamma, but whereas the wheel-turning monarch relies upon the Dhamma as principle of righteousness to rule his kingdom, the Buddha relies upon the Dhamma as ethical and spiritual norm to teach and transform human beings and guide them toward proper conduct of body, speech, and mind. Neither the wheel-turning monarch nor the Buddha creates the Dhamma they uphold, yet neither can perform their respective functions without it; for the Dhamma is the objective, impersonal, everexistent principle of order that serves as the source and standard for their respective policies and promulgations.

As the king of the Dhamma, the Buddha takes up the task of promoting the true good, welfare, and happiness of the world. He does so by teaching the people of the world how to live in accordance with the Dhamma and behave in such a way that they can attain realization of the same liberating Dhamma that he realized through his enlightenment. The Pāli commentaries demonstrate the broad scope of the Dhamma by distinguishing three types of benefit that the Buddha’s teaching is intended to promote, graded hierarchically according to their relative merit:

1.welfare and happiness directly visible in this present life (diṭṭha-dhamma-hitasukha), attained by fulfilling one’s moral commitments and social responsibilities;

2.welfare and happiness pertaining to the next life (samparāyika-hitasukha), attained by engaging in meritorious deeds;

3.the ultimate good or supreme goal (paramattha), Nibbāna, final release from the cycle of rebirths, attained by developing the Noble Eightfold Path.

While many Western writers on Early Buddhism have focused on this last aspect as almost exclusively representing the Buddha’s original teaching, a balanced presentation should give consideration to all three aspects. Therefore, in this chapter and those to follow, we will be exploring texts from the Nikāyas that illustrate each of these three facets of the Dhamma.

The present chapter includes a variety of texts on the Buddha’s teachings that pertain to the happiness directly visible in this present life. The most comprehensive Nikāya text in this genre is the Sigālaka Sutta (DN 31, also known as the Siṅgalovāda Sutta), sometimes called “The Layperson’s Code of Discipline.” The heart of this sutta is the section on “worshipping the six directions”—Text IV,1(2)—in which the Buddha freely reinterprets an ancient Indian ritual, infusing it with a new ethical meaning. The practice of “worshipping the six directions,” as explained by the Buddha, presupposes that society is sustained by a network of interlocking relationships that bring coherence to the social order when its members fulfill their reciprocal duties and responsibilities in a spirit of kindness, sympathy, and good will. The six basic social relationships that the Buddha draws upon to fill out his metaphor are: parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and friend, employer and workers, lay follower and religious guides. Each is considered one of the six directions in relation to its counterpart. For a young man like Sigālaka, his parents are the east, his teachers the south, his wife and children the west, his friends the north, his workers the nadir, and religious guides the zenith. With his customary sense of systematic concision, the Buddha ascribes to each member of each pair five obligations with respect to his or her counterpart; when each member fulfills these obligations, the corresponding “direction” comes to be “at peace and free from fear.” “Thus, for Early Buddhism, the social stability and security that contribute to human happiness are most effectively achieved when every member of society fulfills the various duties that befall them as determined by their social relationships. Each person rises above the demands of narrow self-interest and develops a sincere, large-hearted concern for the welfare of others and the greater good of the whole.”

From this general code of lay Buddhist ethics, we turn to texts that offer more specific points of advice, beginning with a selection of suttas on “The Family.” This has separate sections on “Parents and Children” (IV,2(1)) and “Husbands and Wives” (IV,2(2)). In keeping with the norms of Indian society—in fact, of virtually all traditional agrarian societies—the Buddha regards the family as the basic unit of social integration and acculturation. It is especially the close, loving relationship between parents and children that fosters the virtues and sense of humane responsibility essential to a cohesive social order. Within the family, these values are transmitted from one generation to the next, and thus a harmonious society is highly dependent on harmonious relations between parents and children. The Buddha emphasizes filial piety—Text IV,2(1)(a)—and the gratitude of children to their parents, a debt they can adequately repay only by establishing their parents in the proper Dhamma—Text IV,2(1)(b).

Wholesome relations between parents and children depend in turn upon the mutual affection and respect of husband and wife, and thus the Buddha also offers guidelines for proper relationships between married couples. These again emphasize a common commitment to ethical conduct and spiritual ideals. Of special interest to us, at a time when many marriages end so soon in divorce, is the Buddha’s advice to the loving couple Nakulapitā and Nakulamātā—Text IV,2(2)(b)—on how the love between a husband and his wife can be sustained so strongly that they can be reunited in their future lives. This discourse also shows that far from demanding that his lay disciples spurn the desires of the world, the Buddha was ready to show those still under the sway of worldly desire how to obtain the objects of their desire. The one requirement he laid down was that the fulfillment of desire be regulated by ethical principles.

Next come a number of texts dealing with different aspects of household life united by an emphasis on right livelihood. Two characteristics of the Buddha’s injunctions to his lay followers regarding the pursuit of mundane happiness stand out from these texts.

First, in seeking “the good visible in this present life,” the lay follower should consistently adhere to principles of right conduct, especially to the five precepts and the rules of right livelihood. Thus, for example, he stipulates that wealth must be “acquired by energetic striving … righteous wealth righteously gained”—Text IV,3. Again, he asks his lay followers to use the wealth they obtain not only to gratify themselves but also to benefit their dependents and others who live on charity, particularly virtuous ascetics and brahmins—Text IV,4(2).

Second, the lay follower should not rest content with the mere pursuit of temporal well-being and happiness but should also seek the well-being and happiness pertaining to the future life. This is to be done by fostering those qualities that lead to a happy rebirth and the attainment of Nibbāna. According to Texts IV,3 and IV,5, the principal virtues a lay follower should possess, leading to future welfare, are: (1) faith (in the Buddha as the Enlightened One), (2) moral discipline (as unbroken observance of the five precepts), (3) generosity (as application to charity, giving, and sharing), and (4) wisdom (as insight into the arising and passing away of phenomena). For Early Buddhism, the ideal householder is not merely a devout supporter of the monastic order but a noble person who has attained at least the first of the four stages of realization, the fruition of stream-entry (sotāpatti).

Finally, with section 6, we come to a selection of texts on “the Community.” I use this word to refer broadly to both the Saṅgha, the monastic order, and the civil society in which any branch of the monastic order must be rooted. From the Nikāyas, it is clear that while the Buddha principally aimed at guiding people toward moral and spiritual progress, he was fully aware that their capacity for moral and spiritual development depends upon the material conditions of the society in which they live. He acutely realized that when people are mired in poverty and oppressed by hunger and want, they will find it hard to hold to a path of moral rectitude. The sheer pain of hunger, and the need to ward off the elements and provide for their families, will compel them to stoop to types of behavior they would avoid if they could obtain fair employment and adequate remuneration for their services. Thus he saw that the provision of economic justice is integral to social harmony and political stability.

The first two texts included here prescribe two sets of guidelines for the monastic order. Both are excerpts from a long discourse the Buddha spoke shortly after the death of Mahāvīra, the leader of the Jains. According to the Nikāyas, following their leader’s death, the Jain monastic order was already beginning to split up, and the Buddha must have felt compelled to lay down guidelines to protect his own order from sharing the same fate after his passing. Text IV,6(1) enumerates six qualities that lead to quarrels and disputes, which the monks should be wary of and strive to eliminate when they discover them within themselves. Although these guidelines are laid down for the monks, they can easily be given a wider application to any organization, secular or religious, for it is the same six factors that lie at the bottom of all conflicts. The positive counterpart to this set of cautionary guidelines is Text IV,6(2), which enumerates “six principles of cordiality” that lead to love, respect, and harmony among the members of the community. Again, with appropriate adaptation, these principles—loving acts of body, speech, and mind; sharing of possessions; common observance of precepts; and unity of views—can be given an extended application beyond a monastic order to the wider community. The same sutta provides more detailed guidelines for preserving harmony in the monastic order after the Buddha’s death, but these deal with aspects of monastic discipline too specialized for the present anthology.

Text IV,6(3), a long excerpt from the Assalāyana Sutta, captures the Buddha in debate with a precocious brahmin pundit about the brahmins’ claims on behalf of the caste system. In the Buddha’s age the caste system was only beginning to take shape in northeast India and had not yet spawned the countless subdivisions and rigid regulations that were to manacle Indian society through the centuries. Society was divided into four broad social classes: the brahmins, who performed the priestly functions prescribed in the Vedas; the khattiyas, the nobles, warriors, and administrators; the vessas, the merchants and agriculturalists; and the suddas, the menials and serfs. There were also those outside the pale of the four main classes, who were regarded as even lower than the suddas. From the Nikāyas it appears that the brahmins, while vested with authority in religious matters, had not yet attained the unchallengeable hegemony they were to gain after the appearance of such works as the Laws of Manu, which laid down the fixed rules of the caste system. They had, however, already embarked on their drive for domination over the rest of Indian society and did so by propagating the thesis that brahmins are the highest caste, the divinely blessed offspring of Brahmā who are alone capable of purification.

Contrary to certain popular notions, the Buddha did not agitate for the abolition of the Indian class system and attempt to establish a classless society. Within the Saṅgha, however, all caste distinctions were abrogated from the moment of ordination. People from any of the four social classes who went forth under the Buddha renounced their class titles and prerogatives, becoming known simply as disciples of the Sakyan son (that is, of the Buddha, who was from the Sakyan clan). Whenever the Buddha and his disciples confronted the brahmins’ claim to superiority, they argued vigorously against them. As our text shows, the Buddha maintained that all such claims were groundless. Purification, he contended, was the result of conduct, not of birth, and was thus accessible to those of all four castes. The Buddha even stripped the term “brahmin” of its hereditary accretions, and hearkening back to its original connotation of holy man, defined the true brahmin as the arahant (see MN 98, not included in this anthology).

The next two selections suggest guidelines for political administration. During the Buddha’s time two distinct forms of government prevailed among the states of northern India in which the Buddha moved and taught, monarchical kingdoms and tribal republics. As a spiritual teacher, the Buddha did not prefer one type of government to the other, nor did he actively interfere in affairs of state. But his followers included leaders from both types of state, and thus he occasionally offered them guidance intended to ensure that they would govern their realms in accordance with ethical norms.

The opening scene of the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the narrative of the Buddha’s last days—Text IV,6(4)—gives us a glimpse into this tumultuous phase of Indian history when Magadha, the rising star among the northern monarchies, was expanding in influence and absorbing its neighboring tribal republics. In the passage reproduced here we see King Ajātasattu, the ruler of Magadha, setting his sights on the Vajjian confederacy, the largest and best organized of the tribal republics. When the sutta opens, he sends his chief minister to inquire from the Buddha whether he has any chance of success in waging war against the Vajjians. The Buddha questions Ānanda about seven conditions of social stability that he had earlier taught the Vajjians, concluding that “as long as they keep to these seven principles, as long as these principles remain in force, the Vajjians may be expected to prosper and not decline.” He then convenes a meeting of the monks and teaches them seven analogous principles of stability applicable to the monastic order.

Since the eventual triumph of the monarchical type of government seemed inevitable, the Buddha sought to establish a model of kingship that could curb the arbitrary exercise of power and subordinate the king to a higher authority. He did so by setting up the ideal of the “wheel-turning monarch,” the righteous king who rules in compliance with the Dhamma, the impersonal law of righteousness (see Text IV,1(1)). The Dhamma that he obeys is the ethical basis for his rule. Symbolized by the sacred wheel-treasure, the Dhamma enables him to subdue without force all the nations of the world and establish a universal reign of peace and virtue based on observance of the five precepts—see Text IV,6(5).

The wheel-turning monarch rules for the welfare and happiness of his subjects and extends protection to all within his realm, even to the birds and beasts. Among his duties is to prevent crime from erupting in his kingdom, and to keep the kingdom safe from crime he must give wealth to those in need, for in the view of the Nikāyas poverty is the breeding ground of criminality. This theme, mentioned among the duties of the wheel-turning monarch in Text IV,6(5), is elaborated in Text IV,6(6). We here see a wise chaplain advise a king that the correct way to end the plague of theft and brigandage in his realm is not by imposing harsher punishments and stricter law enforcement, but by giving the citizens the means to earn their living. Once the people enjoy a satisfactory standard of living, they will lose all interest in harming others, and the country will enjoy peace and tranquility.

1. UPHOLDING THE DHAMMA IN SOCIETY

(1) The King of the Dhamma

The Blessed One said: “Monks, even a wheel-turning monarch, a just and righteous king, does not govern his realm without a co-regent.”

When he had spoken, a certain monk addressed the Blessed One thus: “But who, venerable sir, is the co-regent of the wheel-turning monarch, the just and righteous king?”

“It is the Dhamma, the law of righteousness, O monk,” replied the Blessed One.1

“In this case, the wheel-turning monarch, the just and righteous king, relying on the Dhamma, honoring the Dhamma, esteeming and respecting it, with the Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sovereign, provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for his own dependents. He provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for the khattiyas attending on him; for his army, for the brahmins and householders, for the inhabitants of town and countryside, for ascetics and brahmins, for the beasts and birds.

“A wheel-turning monarch, a just and righteous king, who thus provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for all, is the one who rules by Dhamma only. And that rule cannot be overthrown by any hostile human being.

“Even so, O monk, the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, the just and righteous king of the Dhamma, relying on the Dhamma, honoring the Dhamma, esteeming and respecting it, with the Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sovereign, provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety in regard to action by body, speech, and mind. [He teaches thus:] ‘Such bodily action should be undertaken and such should not be undertaken. Such verbal action should be undertaken and such should not be undertaken. Such mental action should be undertaken and such should not be undertaken.’

“The Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Fully Enlightened One, the just and righteous king of the Dhamma, who thus provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety in regard to action by body, speech, and mind, is the one who turns the incomparable wheel of the Dhamma in accordance with the Dhamma only. And that wheel of the Dhamma cannot be turned back by any ascetic or brahmin, by any deva or Māra or Brahmā or by anyone in the world.”2

(AN 3:14; I 109–10)

(2) Worshipping the Six Directions

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Rājagaha, at the Bamboo Grove, in the Squirrels’ Sanctuary. Then Sigālaka the householder’s son, having got up early and gone out of Rājagaha, was paying homage, with wet clothes and hair and with joined palms, to the different directions: to the east, the south, the west, the north, the nadir, and the zenith.

2. And the Blessed One, having risen early and dressed, took his robe and bowl and went to Rājagaha for alms. And seeing Sigālaka paying homage to the different directions, he said: “Householder’s son, why have you got up early to pay homage to the different directions?”

“Venerable sir, my father, when he was dying, told me to do so. And so, out of respect for my father’s words, which I revere, honor, and hold sacred, I have got up early to pay homage in this way to the six directions.”

“But, householder’s son, that is not the right way to pay homage to the six directions according to the Noble One’s discipline.”

“Well, venerable sir, how should one pay homage to the six directions according to the Noble One’s discipline? It would be good if the Blessed One would teach me the proper way to pay homage to the six directions according to the Noble One’s discipline.”

“Then listen and attend carefully, householder’s son, I will speak.”

“Yes, venerable sir,” Sigālaka said. The Blessed One said this: …

27. “And how, householder’s son, does the noble disciple protect the six directions? These six things are to be regarded as the six directions. The east denotes mother and father. The south denotes teachers. The west denotes wife and children. The north denotes friends and companions. The nadir denotes servants, workers, and helpers. The zenith denotes ascetics and brahmins.

28. “There are five ways in which a son should minister to his mother and father as the eastern direction. [He should think:] ‘Having been supported by them, I will support them. I will perform their duties for them. I will keep up the family tradition. I will be worthy of my heritage. After my parents’ deaths I will distribute gifts on their behalf.’ And there are five ways in which the parents, so ministered to by their son as the eastern direction, will reciprocate: they will restrain him from evil, support him in doing good, teach him some skill, find him a suitable wife, and, in due time, hand over his inheritance to him. In this way the eastern direction is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.

29. “There are five ways in which pupils should minister to their teachers as the southern direction: by rising to greet them, by waiting on them, by being attentive, by serving them, by mastering the skills they teach. And there are five ways in which their teachers, thus ministered to by their pupils as the southern direction, will reciprocate: they will give thorough instruction, make sure they have grasped what they should have duly grasped, give them a thorough grounding in all skills, recommend them to their friends and colleagues, and provide them with security in all directions. In this way the southern direction is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.

30. “There are five ways in which a husband should minister to his wife as the western direction: by honoring her, by not disparaging her, by not being unfaithful to her, by giving authority to her, by providing her with adornments. And there are five ways in which a wife, thus ministered to by her husband as the western direction, will reciprocate: by properly organizing her work, by being kind to the servants, by not being unfaithful, by protecting stores, and by being skillful and diligent in all she has to do. In this way the western direction is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.

31. “There are five ways in which a man should minister to his friends and companions as the northern direction: by gifts, by kindly words, by looking after their welfare, by treating them like himself, and by keeping his word. And there are five ways in which friends and companions, thus ministered to by a man as the northern direction, will reciprocate: by looking after him when he is inattentive, by looking after his property when he is inattentive, by being a refuge when he is afraid, by not deserting him when he is in trouble, and by showing concern for his children. In this way the northern direction is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.

32. “There are five ways in which a master should minister to his servants and workers as the nadir: by arranging their work according to their strength, by supplying them with food and wages, by looking after them when they are ill, by sharing special delicacies with them, and by letting them off work at the right time. And there are five ways in which servants and workers, thus ministered to by their master as the nadir, will reciprocate: they will get up before him, go to bed after him, take only what they are given, do their work properly, and be bearers of his praise and good repute. In this way the nadir is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.

33. “There are five ways in which a man should minister to ascetics and brahmins as the zenith: by kindness in bodily deed, speech, and thought, by keeping open house for them, and by supplying their bodily needs. And the ascetics and brahmins, thus ministered to by him as the zenith, will reciprocate in five ways: they will restrain him from evil, encourage him to do good, be benevolently compassionate toward him, teach him what he has not heard, and point out to him the way to heaven. In this way the zenith is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.”

(from DN 31: Sigālaka Sutta; III 180–81, 187–91)

2. THE FAMILY

(1) Parents and Children

(a) Respect for Parents

“Monks, those families dwell with Brahmā where at home the parents are respected by their children. Those families dwell with the ancient teachers where at home the parents are respected by their children. Those families dwell with the ancient deities where at home the parents are respected by the children. Those families dwell with the holy ones where at home the parents are respected by their children.

“’Brahmā,’ monks, is a term for father and mother. ‘The ancient teachers’ is a term for father and mother. ‘The ancient deities’ is a term for father and mother. ‘The holy ones’ is a term for father and mother. And why? Parents are of great help to their children; they bring them up, feed them, and show them the world.”

(AN 4:63; II 70)

(b) Repaying One’s Parents

“Monks, I declare that there are two persons one can never repay. What two? One’s mother and father.

“Even if one should carry about one’s mother on one shoulder and one’s father on the other, and while doing so should live a hundred years, reach the age of a hundred years; and if one should attend to them by anointing them with balms, by massaging, bathing, and rubbing their limbs, and they should even void their excrements there—even by that would one not do enough for one’s parents, nor would one repay them. Even if one were to establish one’s parents as the supreme lords and rulers over this earth so rich in the seven treasures, one would not do enough for them, nor would one repay them. For what reason? Parents are of great help to their children; they bring them up, feed them, and show them the world.

“But, monks, one who encourages his unbelieving parents, settles and establishes them in faith; who encourages his immoral parents, settles and establishes them in moral discipline; who encourages his stingy parents, settles and establishes them in generosity; who encourages his ignorant parents, settles and establishes them in wisdom—such a one, monks, does enough for his parents: he repays them and more than repays them for what they have done.”

(AN 2: iv, 2; I 61–62)

(2) Husbands and Wives

(a) Different Kinds of Marriages

On one occasion the Blessed One was traveling along the highway between Madhurā and Verañjā, and a number of householders and their wives were traveling along the same road. Then the Blessed One left the road and sat down on a seat at the foot of a tree. The householders and their wives saw the Blessed One sitting there and approached him. Having paid homage to him, they sat down to one side, and the Blessed One then said to them:

“Householders, there are these four kinds of marriages. What four? A wretch lives together with a wretch; a wretch lives together with a goddess; a god lives together with a wretch; a god lives together with a goddess.

“And how does a wretch live together with a wretch? Here, householders, the husband is one who destroys life, takes what is not given, engages in sexual misconduct, speaks falsely, and indulges in wines, liquor, and intoxicants, the basis for negligence; he is immoral, of bad character; he dwells at home with a heart obsessed by the stain of stinginess; he abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. And his wife is exactly the same in all respects. It is in such a way that a wretch lives together with a wretch.

“And how does a wretch live together with a goddess? Here, householders, the husband is one who destroys life … who abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one who abstains from the destruction of life … from wines, liquor, and intoxicants; she is virtuous, of good character; she dwells at home with a heart free from the stain of stinginess; she does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins. It is in such a way that a wretch lives together with a goddess.

“And how does a god live together with a wretch? Here, householders, the husband is one who abstains from the destruction of life … who does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one who destroys life … who abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. It is in such a way that a god lives together with a wretch.

“And how does a god live together with a goddess? Here, householders, the husband is one who abstains from the destruction of life … from wines, liquor, and intoxicants; he is virtuous, of good character; he dwells at home with a heart free from the stain of stinginess; he does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins. And his wife is exactly the same in all respects. It is in such a way that a god lives together with a goddess.

“These, householders, are the four kinds of marriages.”

(AN 4:53; II 57–59)

(b) How to Be United in Future Lives

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Bhagga people, near Suṃsumāragiri, in the Deer Park of the Bhesakalā Grove. One morning the Blessed One dressed, took his upper robe and bowl, and went to the dwelling of the householder Nakulapitā.3 Having arrived there, he sat down on the seat prepared for him. Then the householder Nakulapitā and the housewife Nakulamātā approached the Blessed One and, after paying homage to him, sat down to one side. So seated, the householder Nakulapitā said to the Blessed One:

“Venerable sir, ever since the young housewife Nakulamātā was brought home to me when I too was still young, I am not aware of having wronged her even in my thoughts, still less in my deeds. Our wish is to be in one another’s sight so long as this life lasts and in the future life as well.”

Then Nakulamātā the housewife addressed the Blessed One thus: “Venerable sir, ever since I was taken to the home of my young husband Nakulapitā, while being a young girl myself, I am not aware of having wronged him even in my thoughts, still less in my deeds. Our wish is to be in one another’s sight so long as this life lasts and in the future life as well.”

Then the Blessed One spoke thus: “If, householders, both wife and husband wish to be in one another’s sight so long as this life lasts and in the future life as well, they should have the same faith, the same moral discipline, the same generosity, the same wisdom; then they will be in one another’s sight so long as this life lasts and in the future life as well.”

When both are faithful and generous,
Self-restrained, of righteous living,
They come together as husband and wife
Full of love for each other.

Many blessings come their way,
They dwell together in happiness,
Their enemies are left dejected,
When both are equal in virtue.

Having lived by Dhamma in this world,
The same in virtue and observance,
They rejoice after death in the deva-world,
Enjoying abundant happiness.

(AN 4:55; II 61–62)

(c) Seven Kinds of Wives

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery. In the morning the Blessed One dressed, took his bowl and robe, and went to Anāthapiṇḍika’s house, where he sat down in a seat prepared for him. On that occasion people in the house were making an uproar and a racket. The householder Anāthapiṇḍika approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat down to one side.4 The Blessed One then said to him:

“Why are people in your house making this uproar and racket, householder? One would think they were fishermen making a haul of fish.”

“That, venerable sir, is our daughter-in-law Sujātā. She is rich and has been brought here from a rich family. She does not obey her father-in-law and mother-in-law, nor her husband. She does not even honor, respect, esteem, and venerate the Blessed One.”

Then the Blessed One called the daughter-in-law Sujātā, saying, “Come, Sujātā.”

“Yes, venerable sir,” she replied, and she went to the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat down to one side. The Blessed One then said to her: “There are these seven kinds of wives, Sujātā. What seven? One like a slayer, one like a thief, one like a tyrant, one like a mother, one like a sister, one like a friend, and one like a handmaid. These are the seven kinds of wives. Now which of these seven are you?”

“I do not understand in detail the meaning of the Blessed One’s brief statement. It would be good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would teach me the Dhamma in such a way that I might understand the meaning in detail.”

“Then listen, Sujātā, and attend carefully. I will speak.”

“Yes, venerable sir,” Sujātā replied. The Blessed One said this:

“With hateful mind, cold and heartless,
Lusting for others, despising her husband;
Who seeks to kill the one who bought her—
Such a wife is called a slayer.

“When her husband acquires wealth
By his craft or trade or farm work,
She tries to filch a little for herself—
Such a wife is called a thief.

“The slothful glutton, bent on idling,
Harsh, fierce, rough in speech,
A woman who bullies her own supporter—
Such a wife is called a tyrant.

“One who is always helpful and kind,
Who guards her husband as a mother her son,
Who carefully protects the wealth he earns—
Such a wife is called a mother.

“She who holds her husband in high regard
As younger sister holds the elder born,
Who humbly submits to her husband’s will—
Such a wife is called a sister.

“One who rejoices at her husband’s sight
As one friend might welcome another,
Well raised, virtuous, devoted—
Such a wife is called a friend.

“One without anger, afraid of punishment,
Who bears with her husband free of hate,
Who humbly submits to her husband’s will—
Such a wife is called a handmaid.5

“The types of wives here called a slayer,
A thief, and the wife like a tyrant,
These kinds of wives, with the body’s breakup,
Will be reborn deep in hell.

“But wives like mother, sister, friend,
And the wife called a handmaid,
Steady in virtue, long restrained,
With the body’s breakup go to heaven.

“These, Sujātā, are the seven kinds of wives. Now which of these are you?”

“Beginning today, venerable sir, you should consider me a wife who is like a handmaid.”

(AN 7:59; IV 91–94)

3. PRESENT WELFARE, FUTURE WELFARE

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Koliyans where there was a market town of the Koliyans named Kakkarapatta. Then the Koliyan family man Dīghajānu approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat down to one side. So seated, he said to the Blessed One:

“Venerable sir, we are laypeople who enjoy sensual pleasures, dwelling at home in a bed crowded with children, enjoying fine sandalwood, wearing garlands, scents, and unguents, accepting gold and silver. Let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma to us in a way that will lead to our welfare and happiness both in the present life and in the future life as well.”

“There are, Byagghapajja, four things that lead to the welfare and happiness of a family man in this very life. What four? The accomplishment of persistent effort, the accomplishment of protection, good friendship, and balanced living.

“And what is the accomplishment of persistent effort? Here, Byagghapajja, whatever may be the means by which a family man earns his living—whether by farming, trade, cattle raising, archery or civil service, or by some other craft—he is skillful and diligent; he investigates the appropriate means, and is able to act and arrange everything properly. This is called the accomplishment of persistent effort.

“And what is the accomplishment of protection? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man sets up protection and guard over the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained, thinking: ‘How can I prevent kings and bandits from taking this away, fire from burning it, floods from sweeping it off, and unloved heirs from taking it?’ This is called the accomplishment of protection.

“And what is good friendship? Here, Byagghapajja, in whatever village or town a family man dwells, he associates with householders or their sons, whether young or old, who are of mature virtue, accomplished in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and wisdom; he converses with them and engages in discussions with them. He emulates them in regard to their accomplishment in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and wisdom. This is called good friendship.

“And what is balanced living? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man knows his income and expenditures and leads a balanced life, neither extravagant nor miserly, so that his income exceeds his expenditures rather than the reverse. Just as a goldsmith or his apprentice, holding up a scale, knows, ‘By so much it has dipped down, by so much it has tilted up,’ so a family man leads a balanced life.

“The wealth thus amassed has four sources of dissipation: womanizing, drunkenness, gambling, and evil friendship. Just as in the case of a tank with four inlets and outlets, if one should close the inlets and open the outlets, and there would not be adequate rainfall, a decrease rather than an increase of the water could be expected in the tank, so these four things bring about the dissipation of amassed wealth.

“Similarly, there are four sources for the increase of amassed wealth: abstinence from womanizing, from drunkenness, from gambling, and from evil friendship. Just as in the case of a tank with four inlets and outlets, if one should open the inlets and close the outlets, and there would be adequate rainfall, an increase rather than a decrease of the water could be expected in the tank, so these four things bring about the increase of amassed wealth.

“These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man’s welfare and happiness in the present life.

“Four other things lead to a family man’s welfare and happiness in the future life. What four? Accomplishment in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and wisdom.

“And how is a family man accomplished in faith? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man has faith; he places faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata: ‘So the Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ In this way a family man is accomplished in faith.

“And how is a family man accomplished in moral discipline? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the basis for negligence. In this way a family man is accomplished in moral discipline.

“And how is a family man accomplished in generosity? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man dwells at home with a mind devoid of the stain of stinginess, freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one devoted to charity, delighting in giving and sharing. In this way a family man is accomplished in generosity.

“And how is a family man accomplished in wisdom? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man possesses the wisdom that sees into the arising and passing away of phenomena, that is noble and penetrative and leads to the complete destruction of suffering. In this way a family man is accomplished in wisdom.

“These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man’s welfare and happiness in the future life.”

(AN 8:54; IV 281–85)

4. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD

(1) Avoiding Wrong Livelihood

“These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading in weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison.”

(AN 5:177; III 208)

(2) The Proper Use of Wealth

[The Blessed One addressed the householder Anāthapiṇḍika:] “With the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained, the noble disciple undertakes four worthy deeds. What four?

“With the wealth thus gained he makes himself happy and pleased and properly maintains himself in happiness; he makes his parents happy and pleased and properly maintains them in happiness; he makes his wife and children, his slaves, workers, and servants happy and pleased and properly maintains them in happiness; he makes his friends and colleagues happy and pleased and properly maintains them in happiness. This is the first case of wealth gone to good use, fruitfully applied and used for a worthy cause.

“Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disciple makes provisions against the losses that might arise on account of fire and floods, kings and bandits and unloved heirs; he makes himself secure against them. This is the second case of wealth gone to good use.…

“Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disciple makes the five kinds of offerings: to relatives, guests, ancestors, the king, and the devas. This is the third case of wealth gone to good use.…

“Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disciple establishes a lofty offering of alms to those ascetics and brahmins who refrain from vanity and negligence, who are settled in patience and gentleness, who are devoted to taming themselves, to calming themselves, and to attaining Nibbāna—an offering that is heavenly, resulting in happiness, conducive to heaven. This is the fourth case of wealth gone to good use, fruitfully employed and used for a worthy cause.

“These, householder, are the four worthy deeds that the noble disciple undertakes with the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained.

“For anyone whose wealth is expended on other things apart from these four worthy deeds, that wealth is said to have gone to waste, to have been squandered and used frivolously. But for anyone whose wealth is expended on these four worthy deeds, that wealth is said to have gone to good use, to have been fruitfully employed and used for a worthy cause.”

(AN 4:61; II 65–68)

(3) A Family Man’s Happiness

The Blessed One said to the householder Anāthapiṇḍika: “There are, householder, these four kinds of happiness which may be achieved by a layperson who enjoys sensual pleasures, depending on time and occasion. What four? The happiness of possession, the happiness of enjoyment, the happiness of freedom from debt, and the happiness of blamelessness.

“And what, householder, is the happiness of possession? Here, a family man possesses wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained. When he thinks, ‘I possess wealth acquired by energetic striving … righteously gained,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness of possession.

“And what, householder, is the happiness of enjoyment? Here, with the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained, a family man enjoys his wealth and does meritorious deeds. When he thinks, ‘With the wealth acquired by energetic striving … righteously gained, I enjoy my wealth and do meritorious deeds,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness of enjoyment.

“And what, householder, is the happiness of freedom from debt? Here, a family man is not indebted to anyone to any degree, whether small or great. When he thinks, ‘I am not indebted to anyone to any degree, whether small or great,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness of freedom from debt.

“And what, householder, is the happiness of blamelessness? Here, householder, a noble disciple is endowed with blameless conduct of body, speech, and mind. When he thinks, ‘I am endowed with blameless conduct of body, speech, and mind,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness of blamelessness.

“These, householder, are the four kinds of happiness that a layperson who enjoys sensual pleasures may achieve, depending on time and occasion.”

(AN 4:62; II 69–70)

5. THE WOMAN OF THE HOME

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthī in the Eastern Park, in the Mansion of Migāra’s Mother. Then Visākhā, Migāra’s mother, approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat down to one side.6 The Blessed One then said to her:

“Visākhā, when a woman possesses four qualities she is heading for victory in the present world and is successful in this world. What four?

“Here, Visākhā, a woman is capable at her work; she manages her domestic help; she behaves in a way that is agreeable to her husband; and she safeguards his earnings.

“And how is a woman capable at her work? Here, Visākhā, she is skillful and diligent in regard to her husband’s household chores, whether with wool or cotton; she investigates the appropriate means and is able to act and arrange everything properly. In this way a woman is capable at her work.

“And how is a woman one who manages the domestic help? Here, Visākhā, in regard to her husband’s domestic helpers—slaves, servants, or workers—she knows by direct inspection what they have done and failed to do; she knows when they are sick and healthy; and she distributes to each the appropriate share of food. In this way a woman manages the domestic help.

“And how does a woman behave in a way that is agreeable to her husband? Here, Visākhā, a woman would not commit any misdeed that her husband would consider disagreeable, even at the cost of her life. In this way a woman behaves in a way that is agreeable to her husband.

“And how does a woman safeguard her husband’s earnings? Here, Visākhā, whatever her husband brings home—whether money or grain, silver or gold—she succeeds in protecting and guarding it, and she is not a spendthrift, thief, wastrel, or squanderer of his wealth. In this way a woman safeguards her husband’s earnings.

“When, Visākhā, a woman possesses these four qualities, she is heading for victory in the present world and is successful in this world. But when she possesses four other qualities, she is heading for victory in the other world and is successful in regard to the other world. What four?

“Here, Visākhā, a woman is accomplished in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and wisdom.

“And how is a woman accomplished in faith? Here, Visākhā, a woman has faith; she places faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: ‘So the Blessed One is an arahant … [as in Text IV,3] … teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ In this way a woman is accomplished in faith.

“And how is a woman accomplished in moral discipline? Here, Visākhā, a woman abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the basis for negligence. In this way a woman is accomplished in moral discipline.

“And how is a woman accomplished in generosity? Here, Visākhā, a woman dwells at home with a mind devoid of the stain of stinginess, freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one devoted to charity, delighting in giving and sharing. In this way a woman is accomplished in generosity.

“And how is a woman accomplished in wisdom? Here, Visākhā, a woman possesses the wisdom that sees into the arising and passing away of phenomena, that is noble and penetrative and leads to the complete destruction of suffering.

“When a woman possesses these four qualities, she is heading for victory in the other world and is successful in regard to the other world.”

(AN 8:49; IV 269–71)

6. THE COMMUNITY

(1) Six Roots of Dispute

6. “There are, Ānanda, these six roots of disputes. What six? Here, Ānanda, a monk is angry and resentful. Such a monk dwells without respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and he does not fulfill the training. A monk who dwells without respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and who does not fulfill the training, creates a dispute in the Saṅgha, which would be for the harm and unhappiness of many, for the loss, harm, and suffering of devas and humans. Now if you see any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should strive to abandon that same evil root of dispute. And if you do not see any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should practice in such a way that that same evil root of dispute does not erupt in the future. Thus there is the abandoning of that evil root of dispute; thus there is the non-eruption of that evil root of dispute in the future.

7–11. “Again, a monk is contemptuous and insolent … envious and niggardly … deceitful and fraudulent … has evil wishes and wrong view … adheres to his own views, holds on to them tenaciously, and relinquishes them with difficulty. Such a monk dwells without respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and he does not fulfill the training. A monk who dwells without respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and who does not fulfill the training, creates a dispute in the Saṅgha, which would be for the harm and unhappiness of many, for the loss, harm, and suffering of devas and humans. Now if you see any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should strive to abandon that same evil root of dispute. And if you do not see any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should practice in such a way that that same evil root of dispute does not erupt in the future. Thus there is the abandoning of that evil root of dispute; thus there is the non-eruption of that evil root of dispute in the future. These are the six roots of dispute.”

(from MN 104: Sāmagāma Sutta; II 245–47)

(2) Six Principles of Cordiality

21. “Ānanda, there are these six principles of cordiality that create love and respect, and conduce to cohesion, nondispute, concord, and unity. What are the six?

“Here a monk maintains bodily acts of loving-kindness both in public and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to cohesion, nondispute, concord, and unity.

“Again, a monk maintains verbal acts of loving-kindness both in public and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to … unity.

“Again, a monk maintains mental acts of loving-kindness both in public and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to … unity.

“Again, a monk enjoys things in common with his virtuous companions in the holy life; without making reservations, he shares with them any righteous gain that has been obtained in a righteous way, including even the mere content of his alms bowl. This too is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to … unity.

“Again, a monk dwells both in public and in private possessing in common with his companions in the holy life those virtues that are unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to concentration. This too is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect and conduces to … unity.

“Again, a monk dwells both in public and in private possessing in common with his companions in the holy life that view that is noble and emancipating, and leads the one who practices in accordance with it to the complete destruction of suffering. This too is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to cohesion, to nondispute, to concord, and to unity.

“These are the six principles of cordiality that create love and respect, and conduce to cohesion, to nondispute, to concord, and to unity.

(from MN 104: Sāmagāma Sutta; II 250–51)

(3) Purification Is for All Four Castes

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park.

2. Now at that time five hundred brahmins from diverse provinces were staying at Sāvatthī for some business or other. Then those brahmins thought: “This ascetic Gotama describes purification for all the four castes. Who is there able to dispute with him about this assertion?”

3. Now on that occasion a brahmin student named Assalāyana was staying at Sāvatthī. Young, shaven-headed, sixteen years old, he was a master of the three Vedas with their vocabularies, liturgy, phonology, and etymology, and the histories as a fifth; skilled in philology and grammar, he was fully versed in natural philosophy and in the marks of a great man. So the brahmins thought he would be able to debate with the Blessed One.

4. They went to the brahmin student Assalāyana and said to him: “Master Assalāyana, this ascetic Gotama describes purification for all the four castes. Let Master Assalāyana come and dispute with the ascetic Gotama about this assertion.”

When this was said, the brahmin student Assalāyana replied: “Sirs, the ascetic Gotama is one who speaks the Dhamma. Now those who speak the Dhamma are difficult to dispute with. I cannot dispute with the ascetic Gotama about this assertion.”

A second time and a third time the brahmins urged him to go. A second time the brahmin student Assalāyana refused, but after the third urging he consented.

5. Then the brahmin student Assalāyana went with a large number of brahmins to the Blessed One and exchanged greetings with him. When this courteous and amiable talk was finished, he sat down at one side and said to the Blessed One:

“Master Gotama, the brahmins say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste, those of any other caste are inferior; brahmins are the fairest caste, those of any other caste are dark; only brahmins are purified, not non-brahmins; brahmins alone are the sons of Brahmā, the offspring of Brahmā, born of his mouth, born of Brahmā, created by Brahmā, heirs of Brahmā.’ What does Master Gotama say about that?”

“Now, Assalāyana, the brahmin women are seen having their periods, becoming pregnant, giving birth, and nursing.7 And yet those brahmins, though born from the womb, say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … brahmins alone are the sons of Brahmā, the offspring of Brahmā, born of his mouth, born of Brahmā, created by Brahmā, heirs of Brahmā.’”

6. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Have you heard that in Yona and Kamboja8 and in other outland countries there are only two castes, masters and slaves, and that masters become slaves and slaves become masters?”

“So I have heard, sir.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā’?”

7. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a khattiya were to kill living beings, take what is not given, commit sexual misconduct, speak falsely, speak maliciously, speak harshly, gossip, be covetous, have a mind of ill will, and hold wrong view. With the breakup of the body, after death, would only he be reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell—and not a brahmin? Suppose a merchant … a worker were to kill living beings … and hold wrong view. With the breakup of the body, after death, would only he be reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell—and not a brahmin?”

“No, Master Gotama. Whether it be a khattiya, or a brahmin, or a merchant, or a worker—those of all four castes who kill living beings… and hold wrong view, with the breakup of the body, after death, would be reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā’?”

8. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a brahmin were to abstain from killing living beings, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, from malicious speech, from harsh speech, and from gossip, and were to be without covetousness, to have a mind without ill will, and to hold right view. With the breakup of the body, after death, would only he be reborn in a good destination, in the heavenly world—and not a khattiya, or a merchant, or a worker?”

“No, Master Gotama. Whether a khattiya, a brahmin, a merchant, or a worker—those of all four castes who abstain from killing living beings … and hold right view, with the breakup of the body, after death, will be reborn in a good destination, in the heavenly world.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā’?”

9. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Is only a brahmin capable of developing a mind of loving-kindness toward this region, without hostility and without ill will, and not a khattiya, or a merchant, or a worker?”

“No, Master Gotama. Whether a khattiya, a brahmin, a merchant, or a worker—those of all four castes are capable of developing a mind of loving-kindness toward this region, without hostility and without ill will.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā’?”

10. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Is only a brahmin capable of taking a bathing brush and bath powder, going to the river, and washing off dust and dirt, and not a khattiya, or a merchant, or a worker?”

“No, Master Gotama. Whether a khattiya, a brahmin, a merchant, or a worker—those of all four castes are capable of taking a bathing brush and bath powder, going to the river, and washing off dust and dirt.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā’?”

11. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a consecrated khattiya king were to assemble here a hundred men of different birth and say to them: ‘Come, sirs, let any here who have been born into a khattiya clan or a brahmin clan or a royal clan take an upper fire-stick of fine quality wood and light a fire and produce heat. And also let any who have been born into an outcast clan, a trapper clan, a wicker workers’ clan, a cartwrights’ clan, or a scavengers’ clan take an upper fire-stick made from a dog’s drinking trough, from a pig’s trough, from a dustbin, or from castor-oil wood and light a fire and produce heat.’

“What do you think, Assalāyana? When a fire is lit and heat is produced by someone in the first group, would that fire have a flame, a color, and radiance, and would it be possible to use it for the purposes of fire, while when a fire is lit and heat is produced by someone of the second group, that fire would have no flame, no color, and no radiance, and it would not be possible to use it for the purposes of fire?”

“No, Master Gotama. When a fire is lit and heat is produced by someone of the first group, that fire would have a flame, a color, and radiance, and it would be possible to use it for the purposes of fire. And when a fire is lit and heat is produced by someone of the second group, that fire too would have a flame, a color, and radiance, and it would be possible to use it for the purposes of fire. For all fire has a flame, a color, and a radiance, and it is possible to use all fire for the purposes of fire.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā’?”

12. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus: ‘Brahmins are the highest caste … heirs of Brahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a khattiya youth were to unite with a brahmin girl, and a son was born from their union. Should a son born from a khattiya youth and a brahmin girl be called a khattiya after the father or a brahmin after the mother?”

“He could be called both, Master Gotama.”

13. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a brahmin youth here were to unite with a khattiya girl, and a son were to be born from their union. Should the son born from a brahmin youth and a khattiya girl be called a khattiya after the mother or a brahmin after the father?”

“He could be called both, Master Gotama.”

14. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a mare were to be mated with a male donkey, and a foal were to be born as the result. Should the foal be called a horse after the mother or a donkey after the father?”

“It is a mule, Master Gotama, since it does not belong to either kind. I see the difference in this last case, but I see no difference in either of the former cases.”

15. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose there were two brahmin students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one studious and intelligent, and one neither studious nor intelligent. Which of them would brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a ceremonial offering, or at a sacrificial feast, or at a feast for guests?”

“On such occasions, brahmins would feed first the one who was studious and intelligent, Master Gotama; for how could what is given to one who is neither studious nor intelligent bring great fruit?”

16. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose there were two brahmin students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one studious and intelligent, but immoral and of bad character, and one neither studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character. Which of them would brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a ceremonial offering, or at a sacrificial feast, or at a feast for guests?”

“On such occasions, brahmins would feed first the one who was neither studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character, Master Gotama; for how could what is given to one who is immoral and of bad character bring great fruit?”

17. “First, Assalāyana, you took your stand on birth, and after that you took your stand on scriptural learning, and after that you have come to take your stand on the very ground that purification is for all four castes, as I describe it.”

When this was said, the brahmin student Assalāyana sat silent and dismayed, his shoulders drooping and head down, glum and without response.

(MN 93: Assalāyana Sutta, abridged; II 147–54)

(4) Seven Principles of Social Stability

1.1. Thus have I heard. Once the Blessed One was staying at Rājagaha on Mount Vulture Peak. Now just then King Ajātasattu Vedehiputta of Magadha wanted to attack the Vajjians.9 He said: “I will strike the Vajjians who are so powerful and strong, I will cut them off and destroy them, I will bring them to ruin and destruction!”

1.2. And King Ajātasattu said to his chief minister, the brahmin Vassakāra:

“Brahmin, go to the Blessed One, worship him with your head to his feet in my name, ask if he is free from sickness or disease, if he is living at ease, vigorously and comfortably, and then say: ‘Lord, King Ajātasattu Vedehiputta of Magadha wishes to attack the Vajjians and says: “I will strike the Vajjians … bring them to ruin and destruction!”’ And whatever the Blessed One declares to you, report that faithfully back to me, for Tathāgatas never lie.”

1.3. “Very good, Sire,” said Vassakāra, and having had the state carriages harnessed, he mounted one of them and drove in state from Rājagaha to Vultures’ Peak, riding as far as the ground would allow, then continuing on foot to where the Blessed One was. He exchanged courtesies with the Blessed One, then sat down to one side and delivered the king’s message.

1.4. Now the Venerable Ānanda was standing behind the Blessed One, fanning him. And the Blessed One said:

(1) “Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjians hold regular and frequent assemblies?”

—“I have heard, venerable sir, that they do.”

“Ānanda, as long as the Vajjians hold regular and frequent assemblies, they may be expected to prosper and not decline.

(2) “Have you heard that the Vajjians meet in harmony, break up in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony?”

—“I have heard, venerable sir, that they do.”

“Ānanda, as long as the Vajjians meet in harmony, break up in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected to prosper and not decline.

(3) “Have you heard that the Vajjians do not authorize what has not been authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed according to what has been authorized by their ancient tradition?”

—“I have, venerable sir.”…

(4) “Have you heard that they honor, respect, revere, and salute the elders among them, and consider them worth listening to?…

(5) that they do not forcibly abduct others’ wives and daughters and compel them to live with them?…

(6) that they honor, respect, revere, and salute the Vajjian shrines at home and abroad, not withdrawing the proper support made and given before?…

(7) that proper provision is made for the safety of arahants, so that such arahants may come in future to live there and those already there may dwell in comfort?”

—“I have, Lord.”

“Ānanda, so long as such proper provision is made … the Vajjians may be expected to prosper and not decline.”

1.5. Then the Lord said to the brahmin Vassakāra:

“Once, brahmin, when I was at the Sārandada Shrine in Vesāli, I taught the Vajjians these seven principles for preventing decline, and as long as they keep to these seven principles, as long as these principles remain in force, the Vajjians may be expected to prosper and not decline.”

At this, Vassakāra replied:

“Master Gotama, if the Vajjians keep to even one of these principles, they may be expected to prosper and not decline—far less all seven. Certainly the Vajjians will never be conquered by King Ajātasattu by force of arms, but only by means of propaganda and setting them against one another. And now, Master Gotama, I must depart. I am busy and have much to do.”

“Brahmin, do as you think fit.”

Then Vassakāra, rejoicing and delighted at the Blessed One’s words, rose from his seat and departed.

1.6. Soon after Vassakāra had gone, the Blessed One said: “Ānanda, go to whatever monks there are living around Rājagaha, and summon them to the assembly hall.”

“Yes, venerable sir,” said Ānanda, and he did so. Then he came to the Blessed One, saluted him, stood to one side, and said: “Venerable sir, the Saṅgha of monks is assembled. Now is the time for the Blessed One to do as he sees fit.” Then the Blessed One rose from his seat, went to the assembly hall, sat down on the prepared seat, and said: “Monks, I will teach you seven things that are conducive to welfare. Listen, pay careful attention, and I will speak.”

“Yes, venerable sir,” said the monks, and the Blessed One said:

“As long as the monks hold regular and frequent assemblies, they may be expected to prosper and not decline. As long as they meet in harmony, break up in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected to prosper and not decline. As long as they do not authorize what has not been authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed according to what has been authorized by the rules of training…; as long as they honor, respect, revere, and salute the elders of long standing who are long ordained, fathers and leaders of the order…; as long as they do not fall prey to the craving that arises in them and leads to rebirth…; as long as they are devoted to forest-lodgings…; as long as they preserve their mindfulness regarding the body, so that in future the good among their companions will come to them, and those who have already come will feel at ease with them…; as long as the monks hold to these seven things and are seen to do so, they may be expected to prosper and not decline.”

(from DN 16: Mahāparinibbāna Sutta; II 72–77)

(5) The Wheel-Turning Monarch

3. “And, after many hundreds and thousands of years, King Daḷhanemi said to a certain man: ‘My good man, whenever you see that the sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position, report it to me.’ ‘Yes, Sire,’ the man replied. And after many hundreds and thousands of years the man saw that the sacred wheel-treasure had slipped from its position. Seeing this, he reported the fact to the king. Then King Daḷhanemi sent for his eldest son, the crown prince, and said: ‘My son, the sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position. And I have heard say that when this happens to a wheel-turning monarch, he has not much longer to live. I have had my fill of human pleasures, now is the time to seek heavenly pleasures. You, my son, take over control of this land. I will shave off my hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and go forth from the household life into homelessness.’ And, having installed his eldest son in due form as king, King Daḷhanemi shaved off his hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and went forth from the household life into homelessness. And, seven days after the royal sage had gone forth, the sacred wheel-treasure vanished.

4. “Then a certain man came to the consecrated khattiya king and said: ‘Sire, you should know that the sacred wheel-treasure has disappeared.’ At this the king was grieved and felt sad. He went to the royal sage and told him the news. And the royal sage said to him: ‘My son, you should not grieve or feel sad at the disappearance of the wheel-treasure. The wheel-treasure is not an heirloom from your fathers. But now, my son, you must turn yourself into a noble wheel-turner. And then it may come about that, if you perform the duties of a noble wheel-turning monarch, on the uposatha day of the fifteenth,10 when you have washed your head and gone up to the verandah on top of your palace for the uposatha day, the sacred wheel-treasure will appear to you, thousand-spoked, complete with rim, hub, and all accessories.’

5. “‘But what, Sire, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch?’—‘It is this, my son: Yourself depending on the Dhamma, honoring it, revering it, cherishing it, doing homage to it, and venerating it, having the Dhamma as your badge and banner, acknowledging the Dhamma as your master, you should establish righteous guard, ward, and protection for your own household, your troops, your khattiyas and vassals, for brahmins and householders, town and country folk, ascetics and brahmins, for beasts and birds. Let no crime prevail in your kingdom, and to those who are in need, give wealth. And whatever ascetics and brahmins in your kingdom have renounced the life of sensual infatuation and are devoted to forbearance and gentleness, each one taming himself, each one calming himself, and each one striving for the end of craving, from time to time you should approach them and ask: “What, venerable sirs, is wholesome and what is unwholesome, what is blameworthy and what is blameless, what is to be followed and what is not to be followed? What action will in the long run lead to harm and sorrow, and what to welfare and happiness?”11 Having listened to them, you should avoid what is unwholesome and do what is wholesome. That, my son, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch.’

“‘Yes, Sire,’ said the king, and he performed the duties of a noble wheel-turning monarch. And as he did so, on the uposatha day of the fifteenth, when he had washed his head and gone up to the verandah on top of his palace for the uposatha day, the sacred wheel-treasure appeared to him, thousand-spoked, complete with rim, hub, and all accessories. Then the king thought: ‘I have heard that when a duly anointed khattiya king sees such a wheel on the uposatha day of the fifteenth, he will become a wheel-turning monarch. May I become such a monarch?’

6. “Then, rising from his seat, covering one shoulder with his robe, the king took a gold vessel in his left hand, sprinkled the wheel with his right hand, and said: ‘May the noble wheel-treasure turn, may the noble wheel-treasure conquer!’ The wheel turned to the east, and the king followed it with his fourfold army. And in whatever country the wheel stopped, the king took up residence with his fourfold army. And those who opposed him in the eastern region came and said: ‘Come, Your Majesty, welcome. We are yours, Your Majesty. Rule us, Your Majesty.’ And the king said: ‘Do not take life. Do not take what is not given. Do not commit sexual misconduct. Do not tell lies. Do not drink intoxicating drinks. Enjoy your possessions as before.’12 And those who had opposed him in the eastern region became his subjects.

7. “Then the wheel turned south, west, and north … [as section 6] … Then the wheel-treasure, having conquered the lands from sea to sea, returned to the royal capital and stopped before the king’s palace as he was trying a case, as if to adorn the royal palace.”

(from DN 26: Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta; III 59–63)

(6) Bringing Tranquillity to the Land

9. Sitting to one side, the brahmin Kūṭadanta addressed the Blessed One: “Master Gotama, I have heard that you understand how to conduct successfully the triple sacrifice with its sixteen requisites. Now I do not understand all this, but I want to make a big sacrifice. It would be good if Master Gotama would explain this to me.”

“Then listen, brahmin, pay proper attention, and I will explain.”

“Yes, sir,” replied Kūṭadanta, and the Blessed One continued:

10. “Brahmin, once upon a time there was a king called Mahāvijita. He was rich, of great wealth and resources, with an abundance of gold and silver, of possessions and requisites, of money and money’s worth, with a full treasury and granary. And when King Mahāvijita was reflecting in private, the thought came to him: ‘I have acquired extensive wealth in human terms, I occupy a wide extent of land which I have conquered. Let me now make a great sacrifice that would be to my benefit and happiness for a long time.’ And calling his chaplain,13 he told him his thought. ‘I want to make a great sacrifice. Instruct me, venerable sir, how this may be to my lasting benefit and happiness.’

11. “The chaplain replied: ‘Your Majesty’s country is beset by thieves. It is ravaged; villages and towns are being destroyed; the countryside is infested with brigands. If Your Majesty were to tax this region, that would be the wrong thing to do. Suppose Your Majesty were to think: “I will get rid of this plague of robbers by executions and imprisonment, or by confiscation, threats, and banishment,” the plague would not be properly ended. Those who survived would later harm Your Majesty’s realm. However, with this plan you can completely eliminate the plague. To those in the kingdom who are engaged in cultivating crops and raising cattle, let Your Majesty distribute grain and fodder; to those in trade, give capital; to those in government service assign proper living wages. Then those people, being intent on their own occupations, will not harm the kingdom. Your Majesty’s revenues will be great; the land will be tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the people, with joy in their hearts, playing with their children, will dwell in open houses.’

“And saying: ‘So be it!,’ the king accepted the chaplain’s advice: he gave grain and fodder to those engaged in cultivating crops and raising cattle, capital to those in trade, proper living wages to those in government service. Then those people, being intent on their own occupations, did not harm the kingdom. The king’s revenues became great; the land was tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the people, with joy in their hearts, playing with their children, dwelled in open houses.”

(from DN 5: Kūṭadanta Sutta; I 134–36)

__________________

Notes:

1.As the standard for the wheel-turning monarch, Dhamma is not the Buddha’s teaching but the moral law of justice and righteousness on the basis of which the righteous king rules his country and gains sovereignty over the world. In Indian iconography, the wheel (cakka) is the symbol of sovereignty in both the temporal and spiritual spheres. The world ruler assumes kingship when the mystical “wheel treasure” (cakkaratana) appears to him (see Text IV,6(5)); the wheel treasure persists as the symbol of his rule. Analogously, the Buddha sets in motion the wheel of the Dhamma, which cannot be turned back by anyone in the world.

2.Compare with the shout of the devas at the conclusion of Text II,5.

3.The householder Nakulapitā and the housewife Nakulamātā were the foremost of the Buddha’s lay disciples with regard to their trust in him. See Nyanaponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, pp. 375–78.

4.Anāthapiṇḍika was the Buddha’s foremost male lay supporter. See Nyanaponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, chapter 9.

5.Dāsī: literally, a female slave. Fortunately, in Buddhist societies this recommendation has not been taken very seriously and the first three models of the ideal wife have prevailed.

6.Visākhā was the Buddha’s foremost female lay supporter. The Eastern Park was the monastery she had built for the Buddha in the eastern part of Sāvatthī.

7.This argument is intended to refute the brahmins’ claim that they are born from the mouth of Brahmā.

8.Yona is probably the Greek colony of Bactria, in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Greeks lived and ruled here after the conquests of Alexander the Great. Kamboja is probably to the northwest of the Indian “Middle Country.”

9.King Ajātasattu had come to power by killing his father, the virtuous king Bimbisāra, a supporter of the Buddha who had attained stream-entry, the first stage of liberation. Ajātasattu later felt remorse for his heinous deed and, after hearing the Buddha teach the Sāmaññaphala Sutta (DN 2), became his follower. The Vajjian confederacy, north of Magadha, on the other side of the river Ganges, consisted of the Licchavis of Vesālī and the Vedehis (of Videha—to whom Ajātasattu’s mother belonged), whose capital was Mithilā.

10.The uposatha is the day of religious observance in the Indian lunar calendar. It falls on the days of the full moon (the fifteenth of the fortnight), the new moon (the fourteenth or fifteenth of the fortnight), and the two half-moons. The “uposatha day of the fifteenth” referred to here is probably the full-moon uposatha.

11.I correct an error in Walshe’s translation here. Walshe translates as if the virtuous ascetics and brahmins should come to the king to ask for his guidance in what is wholesome and unwholesome. The Pāli text, however, is clear that it is the king who should approach the virtuous ascetics and brahmins to ask for their guidance.

12.Yathābhuttañ ca bhuñjatha. The Pāli means literally “eat the food as it has been eaten,” but this seems to be the implication. Walshe’s “Be moderate in eating” cannot be correct.

13.Purohita. He was a brahmin who served as an advisor on both religious and temporal affairs.

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