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Now, let us look at this text by Je Tsongkhapa, the Abridged Stages of the Path to Enlightenment. It is called ‘Song of Experience,’ because it is based on his own experi­ence and realization. When we talk about the stages of the path to enlightenment, it refers to the content or subject of the teaching. Enlightenment is the goal to be achieved. Enlightenment here refers to that great enlightenment which is Buddhahood. The first part of the Tibetan word for enlightenment means to purify all negativities. But it does not mean the momentary cessation of these disturb­ing emotions. That will always take place. It is a law of nature. Whatever is impermanent ceases momentarily. Here we are talking about the cessation or removal of these disturbing emotions through the use of certain powerful antidotes. The second part of the Tibetan word means to generate positive qualities. Purification mainly refers to the three poisons, anger, attachment and igno­rance, especially the imprints left behind by ignorance, which are the obstructions to Buddhahood. When we remove the imprint of ignorance, the innate power of the mind to see the actual nature of phenomena manifests.

The potency of the mind to see the actual nature of phenomena is its inherent quality. It is obscured by the obstructions to enlightenment. Buddhahood is the goal and it is achieved through the mind. We are talking about achieving enlightenment within our mind. We are not referring to enlightenment as some other peaceful place. If it were somewhere else, we might, instead of purifying our mind, adopt some other measures, such as travelling by aeroplane or train. Enlightenment is achieved with our mind, by purifying all our negative disturbing emotions individually one by one and actualizing all positive quali­ties one by one. This is usually called the path.

There are different stages to the process of removing the disturbing emotions. To begin with, we simply weaken or reduce the delusions. Gradually through the force of counter measures, we strengthen positive qualities. In this way we completely eradicate and remove the nega­tive delusions. Eventually we attain a state where even if the causes and conditions are present, disturbing emo­tions do not arise. We achieve a state of cessation of these disturbing emotions, which is called the true cessation. And the path responsible for achieving that true cessation is called the true path. The direct counter force that removes the root cause of suffering is the wisdom under­standing emptiness. Other qualities like love and com­passion contribute to removing it, but do not directly eradicate these negative imprints or seeds.

When we meditate continuously on the wisdom understanding emptiness, the clarity of our understand­ing gradually increases. To start with we are unable to understand the nature of the object correctly, because our minds are obscured by ignorance. To counter that, we familiarize our minds with the wisdom understanding emptiness. When we attain the non-dualistic path of a superior being, it is called the true path. The total cessa­tion of disturbing emotions within your mind is called the true cessation. It is also called the true Dharma, which is our real protector.

Therefore, when we talk about the stages of the path, this is the path.

Since the ultimate state of Buddhahood a state of complete purification of the mind, while we are training, we enter into the process of purifying the mind of negativities. In order to generate such a true path and true cessation within our minds, even at our ordinary level it is important to remove the grosser levels of disturbing emotions and the negative conduct that is induced by them. We should promote all positive qualities individu­ally and remove all negativities individually. That prac­tice is called the path. The Stages of the Path does not explain these different rules of the path at random. It explains the path in a systematic order. Therefore, it is called the stages of the path.

Even in achieving the first path, which is called the path of accumulation there are different techniques de­pending upon your mental intelligence. The process of meditation also differs. The Stages of the Path explains systematically what kind of meditation you should do first, second and so forth. Therefore, it is called stages or order of the path. In one sense all the words of the Buddha and the commentaries on them can be categorized as stages of the path, because they explain the different levels of the path. But the usage of this term, Stages of the Path, actually came into existence after Atisha.

The main subject of these teachings is the generation of the awakening mind. It is a great vehicle teaching. When you meditate on the stages of the path of the great vehicle, they are based on the stages of the path of the foundational vehicles. The great vehicle teaching is of two categories, Sutra and Tantra. Sutra teachings explain the generation of the awakening mind and engaging in the practices of a bodhisattva, the practice of the six perfec­tions. Based on that, the vehicle of Tantra is explained.

So the main focus of the Stages of the Path is on the generation of the awakening mind. As preliminary prac­tices the topics described in the foundational vehicle are also explained. Then within the great vehicle teachings, that explain the practice of the six perfections, the most important are practices of calm abiding and special in­sight. It is on the basis of these that we engage in the practice of Tantra as a sort of ultimate practice.

I bow down to the greatest of the Shakyas,

Whose body is formed by ten million perfect virtues,

Whose speech fulfills the hopes of limitless beings,

Whose mind perceives everything as it is.

I bow down to Manjushri and to Maitreya,

The noblest sons of that peerless teacher,

Whose emanations appear in innumerable fields,

Taking on the task of the Conqueror’s deeds

I bow at the feet of Nagarjuna and Asanga,

Adorning this world, famed throughout the three realms,

Who, in the sense intended, wrote commentaries

On the ‘Mother of the Conquerors’, so hard to fathom.

I bow to Dipamkara, who held a treasury of instruc­tions,

Summarizing without error all the main points

Of the paths of the profound view and extensive conduct,

Passed down faithfully from these two great trail­blazers.

I bow with respect to the spiritual teachers,

The eye through which to see the myriad scriptures,

The best gateway to liberation for the fortunate.

Moved by compassion, they skillfully illuminate.

Of the different levels of Sutra teaching, the most profound is the teaching on the wisdom understanding Emptiness. Generally the Stages of the Path is categorized as a text on the perfection of wisdom. Therefore, its main source of reference among the words of the Buddha is the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras. Of course, when emptiness is being explained, the stages of the path are also ex­plained. The Stages of the Path is mainly based on the texts of the great Indian pioneers, Asanga and Nagarjuna, who wrote their own commentaries without depending on the works of other scholars. Nagarjuna especially focused on the meaning of emptiness and Asanga focused on ex­plaining the stages of the path.

Nagarjuna’s principal work is the text called Root Wisdom. His main disciples were Aryadeva, who com­posed the wonderful text the Four Hundred Verses, and Chandrakirti. Of course, there was Bhavaviveka too, but when it comes to conclusive and detailed explanation, Chandrakirti’s commentary is one of the most excellent texts.

For the explanation of the stages of the path we have the tradition coming from Asanga to Vasubandhu and so forth. Both these traditions were received intact by Atisha. Although he had countless disciples, because of his past prayers the great master Dromton Gyalwai Jungney, a Tibetan nomad, was Atisha’s main disciple. He was an upasaka and a great scholar. The six teachings of the Kadampa, which are mainly based on a more extensive mode of explanation, were passed down by him. Then there is the tradition distinguished by the kind of instruc­tion, which was later called the threefold tradition of the Kadampa. And from Atisha there came the ear-whispered transmission.

The Stages of the Path started with Atisha. The Kadampa practices earlier than Atisha are called the ancient Kadampa practice, while those that come from Atisha are called the new Kadampa transmission. For example, the Seven Treasures of the great Longchenpa explain the stages of the path. Similarly, other Tibetan Buddhist schools also explain the stages of the path. Practice of the great breakthrough of the Nyingma tradition is possible only on the basis of the stages of the path. The text called the Oral Transmission of the Lama explains the entire stages of the path. Similarly Dvagpo Lharje, who is regarded as one of the greatest disciples of Milarepa, also explains the stages of the path in his Jewel Ornament of Liberation. The Three Traditions and Three Visions in the Sakya tradition also explain the stages of the path. All these different Tibetan schools or traditions, even they use different terminology, they all explain the stages of the path. Of course, there are different ways of explaining it. Even in the texts of Je Tsongkhapa, the order of the Great Exposition and the Middling Exposition are quite different from what we have here in this abridged version of the Stages of the Path. And there is another version in the Mind Training like the Rays of the Sun.

We first engage in practices of the foundational level, which involve thinking about suffering and the determi­nation to be free of it. That topic for the individual of initial aptitude contains the complete path for that kind of person, based on his or her intelligence and aptitude. Having trained in the practices of the initial level, if he or she next hears about the relationship between cause and effect, then that person has one whole practice. Similarly at the middle level, after having trained in the generating a determination to be free, if he or she simply wants to do the practice of renunciation, the whole process of re­nouncing cyclic existence is available.

According to this method of explaining the stages of the path, based on training the individual, whether you are a person of initial, middling or great capacity, there are special supple­ments to practice. Therefore, even though the Stages of the Path explains the practices to be done by an individual at the initial level, the aim is to lead that individual to the middle level and then on to the greater level. But if a person does not have the capacity to engage into all this systematic practice, then he or she can find a complete practice in the teaching of the initial level alone.

I received this Song of Experience or Abridged Stages of the Path to Enlightenment first from Taktra Rinpoche. After that I received one commentary from Ling Rinpoche and one commentary from Trijang Rinpoche. So, I re­ceived three commentaries from these three different masters.

In explaining the greatness of the teaching, the text says:

These stages of the path to enlightenment have come down

Intact from Nagarjuna and Asanga,

Crown jewels among the wise of the world,

Banners of fame, preeminent among living beings

These instructions are a powerful king of jewels,

Since they fulfill all wishes of those in the nine states.

They are a glorious ocean of excellent explanation,

For they bring together a thousand rivers of good scriptural statements.

These stages of the path to enlightenment, which come down to us through Nagarjuna and Asanga, fulfill the hopes and wishes of countless sentient beings. They fulfill both our temporary wishes and the ultimate wish, which is the attainment of Buddhahood. All the stages of prac­tice from the practice of thinking about the preciousness of human life up to the attainment of Buddhahood are explained in the Stages of the Path or the three levels of practice. Since it fulfils the wishes of sentient beings, it is like a precious jewel. The Stages of the Path contains all the essential practices of the great teachings, both the words of the Buddha and the commentaries of the great spiritual masters. Therefore, it is like a great ocean into which many rivers flow.

You will know that the teachings are without contra­dictions;

How to take all the scriptures as personal instruc­tions;

You will easily discover the Conqueror’s intentions,

and will also be protected from the abyss of great error.

The greatness of the Stages of the Path teaching is that since it condenses all the essential teachings of the great spiri­tual masters right from the Buddha, we can understand the non-contradictory spirit of all these different levels of teachings. All these different teachings are useful instruc­tions through which we can easily find the intention of Buddha Shakyamuni.

The different explanations that we find in the teaching of the Buddha and in the different commentaries were given to address the needs of differ­ent students or different sentient beings. At first glance, we may find these teachings to be literally contradictory. And if we are unable to fathom the intrinsic meaning of these teachings, we might get the impression that some of these teachings are to be practised and some are not. We might feel that these masters contradict each other.

But when we gradually work through the practice of the Stages of the Path, from how to rely on a spiritual teacher to the attainment of a Buddha, we find that the teachings are presented in three stages to help practitioners of different mental attitudes according to their different capacities. All the different levels of teachings are to be practised, but we can start from the level which is suitable to our minds.

In addition we can see all these teachings as great instructions. Whether they belong to the Sutras or Tantras, we find that these teachings do not contradict each other. We have different texts like the Treasury of Knowledge, which explains the diverse nature of different levels of phenomena and the Ornament for Clear Realization, which explains the different levels of the path. Looking at these different texts, we might get the feeling that some of these teachings are meant for experience and some are meant only for scholarship. This is a clear indication of being unable to see all the scriptures as great instructions or advice. But if we study a text like the Stages of the Path, we will be able to collect all these teachings together, thinking that this particular line of teaching is useful in relation to this or that kind of experience. Therefore, you will be able to see all these teachings as great instructions or advice for your experience.

Good understanding of the different stages of the path is the basis for correct realization. Therefore the third reason that the Stages of the Path is great is that through it we can easily find the ultimate thought of the Buddha. By practising it we gain realization, through which we in­crease our conviction in the authenticity of the thought of the Buddha. When we develop such a conviction, we will automatically discard our negative way of life and will treat even one letter of the teaching of the Buddha with great respect.

Then what intelligent person would not be enthralled by

These stages of the path of the three kinds of people,

the superlative instructions, followed by many of good fortune,

Wise individuals of both India and Tibet?

Because the Stages of the Path have been arranged systemati­cally, it is easy to practice. These are some of the reasons why the Stages of the Path teaching is great. Therefore, the great scholars of Tibet and India relied on this supreme instruction. Then Tsongkhapa asks whether it is possible for someone to claim to be intelligent without being attracted to the Stages of the Path. Someone who has very strong positive karmic imprints within his or her mind may not have to work through all these different stages of the path, for them a slight causal condition might induce certain realizations. But the general procedure is to do the practice in accordance with the Stages of the Path.

Next it explains how to impart this teaching and the benefits of listening to and explaining this teaching.

Since it’s certain you powerfully accumulate all the benefits

Of explaining or hearing the excellent teachings,

by just once teaching or listening to this concise version,

Summarizing the essence of all the scriptures - think about it!

Since the Stages of the Path is an abbreviation of all the great excellent teachings, if we recite this teaching just once or listen to it once, we will accumulate the extensive merit to be derived from giving or hearing all those teachings. Therefore, we should listen to or impart this teaching with the intention of transforming our minds. We should point our finger at ourselves and think of transforming our own mental attitude to attain Buddhahood. Otherwise, de­spite all these extensive levels of teachings being given to transform the mind, we could simply become great schol­ars. These teachings will become mere academic knowl­edge that will not touch the mind at all. As a result we will not be able to make any transformation within our minds.

Therefore, when we listen to or impart such teach­ings, it is important that we do so with a correct motiva­tion, free of all faults. Listening to the teaching is impor­tant. It is also possible that by simply reading the text we will understand it, but if we listen to an experienced lama’s explanation, it will enhance our own experience. It will be extremely effective for transforming the mind. So, while actually listening to the teaching you should not be like a pot turned upside down, or like a dirty pot, or like a pot with a leaky bottom. You should also generate the six kinds of positive feeling such as imagining yourself as a sick person, the Dharma as medicine, the teacher as a physician and so forth.

The lama should explain the teaching with right motivation. The more he cares about conveying the teach­ing, the greater will be his own realization. Teaching a text to someone else is different from reading it alone by yourself. Sometimes, when you read it alone, you may gallop through the text, but fail to get a clear understand­ing. If you are explaining it to someone, you have to be more careful. You will gain clear insight into certain things you were unable to understand before. I have found many great geshes who became realized after becoming a geshe, because they spent their time explain­ing texts to their students. Whether you are able to do circumambulations or prostrations or not, what is more important is to sincerely teach the meaning of the texts to students. That is more beneficial. Then, at the end you should dedicate all the virtuous qualities you have accu­mulated for the benefit of all sentient beings.

The next point is how to rely on the spiritual friend. Relying on the spiritual friend is referred to as the root of the practice of the Stages of the Path. If we have that as the basis, the rest of our practice will be successful. The text says:

The root which firmly establishes an auspicious con­nection

To a store of diverse good now and hereafter

Is, with effort, to rely properly in thought and deed

On the excellent spiritual friends who show you the path.

Seeing this, never give them up, even at the cost of your life,

And please them with the gift of doing what they instruct.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

Whatever excellent qualities we experience in this life or the life hereafter, relying on the spiritual friend makes an auspicious beginning leading to success in our subse­quent practices. If we have the necessary causes and conditions right at the beginning, it is natural that our subsequent practices will be successful. And unless we accumulate the correct causes and conditions in the be­ginning, the desired result will not be achieved. This is a kind of law of nature. If you want to achieve success in something, you must accumulate the causes and condi­tions. Whether it is scientific development or economic progress, it will be achieved through systematic plan­ning. By systematic planning I mean that whatever you need or require in the future, you should prepare accord­ingly. Follow the first step, the second step, the third step - prepare all the necessary causes and conditions in their systematic order and implement them. Then you will achieve the result you seek.

Dharma practice is concerned with achieving suc­cess in our future lives. What we mainly seek is peace and happiness. Peace and happiness come about through effecting the right causes and conditions. Simply praying for peace and happiness will not bring you what you want.

This is a matter of dependent arising. If you really desire all the excellent qualities of this life and the life hereafter, you should follow the law of dependent aris­ing. Someone becomes a sublime spiritual friend not because he or she is wealthy or renowned. Buddhahood is something we achieve within our minds. It is a mental quality. That ultimate mental quality is achieved through following the stages of the path. This means that we gradually remove the different levels of disturbing emo­tions and achieve the different levels of qualities. The spiritual friend should have listened to the teachings extensively and should have extensive experience of their practice. But if he or she is someone who, despite having a name, has no knowledge, or is someone who has knowl­edge, but has no experience, he or she will find it difficult to guide other people.

Tsongkhapa says in the Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path that if you really want to help other people tame their minds, you must first tame your own mind. If you have not disciplined or tamed your own mind, you can­not really help discipline other people’s minds. Disciplin­ing the mind does not come about through very brief practice. It requires stability. So such training or disciplin­ing the mind does not take place over a few days or even a few months. It should be done over many years. When you gradually transform and discipline your mind through such effort, it will be a real transformation, a real disci­plining of the mind. If you do not discipline your mind in a steady systematic way, you may sometimes be able to behave as if you are very disciplined, by practising giving and so forth, but it will not be long-lasting. I am not saying that this is not useful, but that it is not a real transforma­tion of the mind, a real disciplining of the mind.

In order to discipline your mind thoroughly, it is important to do continuous practice. We see people who seem to be very disciplined and very well behaved for a few months and even for a few years. But later on they behave very negatively, so this is a clear indication that they did not follow a systematic practice. Our enemies, disturbing emotions are extremely clever and cunning. When I was young, I was told that you have to be ex­tremely careful about nagas, otherwise they watch you everywhere and whenever they find an opportunity they will harm you. Of course, that was just a story. What is true is that disturbing emotions are extremely clever. The only work they have to do is to harm us, to destroy us, to bring us suffering. We should be able to discover the nature of our disturbing emotions. We easily discern the nature of our fellow human beings. If someone we know is cunning or deceitful, we immediately note it. So let us try to discover the same tendency, even a worse tendency in the disturbing emotions. It is foolish that we point out the negative behaviour of other people, but overlook the misconception of self and self-centeredness that slumber peacefully within us.

What qualifies a spiritual friend? The Ornament of Sutras explains ten qualities that someone who teaches the Sutras should fulfill. Such a spiritual friend should be completely disciplined, peaceful, and knowledgeable and so forth. Tsongkhapa says that if you are looking for a spiritual friend, you should first discover the qualities that make a spiritual friend. If you are a spiritual teacher who wants to gather more disciples or students, you should examine whether you have the necessary quali­ties. If you don’t do this, some risk is involved. You might initially take someone as your spiritual friend without analyzing his qualities and later on, disgusted with that person’s behaviour, you might turn away from him of her, which involves a risk for you both.

To begin with, instead of accepting someone as a spiritual teacher and receiving teachings from him, it is advisable simply to talk with him or her. Otherwise, you can simply listen to teachings from a certain person without entrusting yourself completely to him or her. After some time, when you have examined his or her good qualities, you can safely take that person as your spiritual friend. To start with, you have to spy on your teacher. Only when you are sure you can really trust this person, should you accept him or her as your teacher. There is a saying that you should not adopt someone as your teacher in the way that a dog runs after a piece of meat.

Once you have adopted someone as your teacher, even if you find some fault in him or her, you should neither focus on it nor declare it to others. Take a neutral stance. It is also said that you should see everything the spiritual friend does as good. This has a particular mean­ing in a particular context. You should not take it at its face value. It is clearly explained that if a spiritual friend says something which is completely against the general in­struction of the Buddha, you have every reason to ques­tion him or her. If the spiritual teacher’s instruction com­pletely contradicts the general teaching of the Buddha, you should disregard it. Of course, if your spiritual teacher has excellent qualities, but his instructions contradict the general instruction of the Buddha in some way, you should question him. If your spiritual teacher is a really authentic master, even though his instruction may ap­pear to be contradictory, he will be able to explain the non-contradictory spirit of his teaching.

You should sincerely rely on the spiritual friend, even at the cost of your life, in terms of your thoughts and in terms of your practice. Once you have accepted some­one as your spiritual teacher, if you can, try to see him or her as a manifestation of the Buddha. However, the main thing is to generate respect and appreciation for his or her knowledge and qualities, and so remember his or her kindness. If you act in accordance with his of her thought and instruction, all your behaviour will automatically become virtuous. If you are close to your spiritual teacher, your faults will automatically cease and your qualities will automatically increase.

In order to mould your body, speech and mind in accordance with the wishes of the spiritual teacher, you should first generate faith. Educated parents take care of their children by sending them to school and making sure that they receive an education. On the other hand, illiter­ate parents, because of their own illiteracy, do not care much about the education of their children. Similarly, it is very important for us to have the right spiritual teacher. We need someone to emulate. Even in ordinary life we depend on a teacher whatever profession we adopt. For instance, you cannot simply become a great artist using your own intelligence. But if you are guided by someone who really knows about art, you will be successful in your work.

When I was learning how to write the headless Tibetan script I was very fond of writing the one with a head, the capital letters. By reading the scriptures and using my own initiative, I was able to write in capital letters. But later, when I started learning from someone how to write them, I found the proper way, the way you hold the pen, the way you move your hand and so forth were completely different. Similarly when it comes to transforming the mind, it is important to depend on someone who knows how to do it. This is why having a spiritual teacher is important.

Now the important question at this juncture is whether it is really possible for someone to be a Buddha, completely enlightened, without fault and possessing all qualities. Take the example of a human being. There is no individual who right from birth is angry and remains so until he or she dies. There are occasions when we become angry, but there are occasions when we become compas­sionate and full of love. So even if you are a very angry person, you will not remain angry all the time. This clearly shows that the mind which has two qualities of clarity and awareness, and disturbing emotions are two separate things. Even though there are occasions when we generate anger and attachment, there are also occa­sions when the fundamental mind is free from these negativities.

From our own experience we know that there are various aspects of the mind based on the fundamental clarity of the mind. There are occasions we generate anger, compassion and so forth towards the same object, but there is no occasion when we generate anger and compassion towards that object at the same time. They cannot arise together at the same time, which shows that these are different aspects of the mind. When we generate disturbing emotions like anger and attachment, we have a strong sense of self, a strong feeling of it. The more we have this misconception of self, the greater will be our anger and attachment. This feeling of ‘I’ or self is some­times so overpowering that we might think we could touch it. This feeling of self definitely strengthens anger and attachment, but it is not the ultimate nature of the mind.

We can understand by inference that the disturbing emotions can be removed. In addition, the misconception of self has an antidote, which is the understanding of selflessness. Therefore, Buddhahood is something exis­tent, and it is something we can attain. If a Buddha exists, he became enlightened for the benefit of other sentient beings. He accumulated positive qualities for the benefit of all other sentient beings. So, we can also assume that, directly or indirectly, Buddhas are always assisting us towards the positive path. Even so, it is only your spiritual teacher who instructs us directly takes us by the hand towards the true path.

Through reasons such as these we can come to the conclusion that the spiritual teacher is a manifestation of the Buddha. When we think in this way, we are focusing more on the qualities of the spiritual teacher and the unreliability of our own perception. By remembering the qualities of the spiritual teacher, we recall that in those terms he or she may be equal to the Buddha, but in terms of kindness, the spiritual teacher is kinder to us than even the Buddha.

Having relied on a spiritual teacher, how do we engage in the practice? How can we extract the meaning of this human birth? The attainment of higher status is our goal and the explanation of how to attain it is the teaching for the first stage of the practice. It is for individuals of initial capacity. Finding the root cause of suffering is the middle teaching. Having recognized suffering and deter­mined to free yourself from cyclic existence, if, faced with the sufferings of other sentient beings, you are able to generate compassion, love and altruism for them, you can engage in the practice of the six perfections. This practice is for individuals of the highest capacity. The next verse explains the importance of a human rebirth.

This life of liberty surpasses a wish-granting jewel,

and you’ll find the like of it only this once.

It’s rare and easily lost, brief as lightening in the sky.

With this in mind, understand that all worldly ac­tions,

Are like chaff tossed in the air, so you must con­stantly

Make best use of this life, day and night.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

and I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

If nirvana and enlightenment exist and can be achieved, then we must achieve them. The way to do so is to transform and discipline the mind. To do that we need determination, which we can arouse through reason. Only human beings are able to use reason. Gods and demigod are something we do not see directly. But among those we can see, the different categories of animals and so forth, human beings have the greatest intelligence. No other creature has such wonderful intelligence as human beings. Therefore, human existence is extremely pre­cious. But if we spend our precious life overwhelmed by disturbing emotions like attachment, anger and so forth, it would seem that we have only taken birth to harm other people.

When we took birth, we brought great suffering to our mothers. If we depended on our mother’s milk, we survived due to her kindness. And even if we did not depend on mothers’ milk, we must have depended on the milk of some other animal, so we depended on their kindness for our survival. Likewise our very life was dependent on the kindness of other sentient beings. So right from the time of our birth until we are able to take care of ourselves, our existence is possible only due to the kindness of many other people. We are able to survive by depending on the suffering and kindness of many other people. But once we are able to take care of ourselves, if, instead of repaying the kindness of others, we are merely destructive, swayed only by attachment, anger and so forth, it is extremely unfortunate. In that case it would have been better to have been born as an animal rather than as a human being. At least animals are less destruc­tive than those kinds of human beings. Leading such a life, it is better to be dead than alive.

We see various destructive people in different parts of the world. Not only do such people experience unhap­piness, but they destroy the happiness of others. They may have power, but they do not experience happiness. If people who have power, wealth and intelligence are unable to use their power and wealth constructively to make other people happy, then it would be better if they did not live. It is important to be able to employ this great resource of human intelligence to help other people. At least it should not be a source of trouble for other people.

In the context of transforming the mind human life is extremely important. On the basis of human intelligence we can generate the precious awakening mind. The awak­ening mind is regarded as like a precious jewel. Caring more about the welfare of other people than about your­self is more precious than a jewel. Such a precious jewel can be produced by the human mind.

So, having taken birth in this world, if we use our precious life for destructive activities, nothing could be worse. Those of us who have encountered the Buddha dharma have the opportunity to use our intelli­gence. One courageous person can give new direction to other human beings and to bring happiness to other sentient beings. On the other hand, if we use our minds negatively, one person alone can destroy thousands of people and animals. Human intelligence has the capacity for constructive and destructive activity. Attaining the higher status of birth as a human being or a god can be achieved by practising the ten virtues, the six perfections and so forth as a human being. Indeed, by engaging in sincere practice of the three trainings of ethics, meditative stabilization and wisdom, we will be able to attain nir­vana. Moreover, we can also attain the ultimate state of Buddhahood. Therefore, this human life is said to be more precious than a precious jewel.

It is natural that if something is precious it will be difficult to find. Human life is very precious and its causes are difficult to achieve, yet on this occasion we have found such as precious opportunity. But not only is it difficult to find, it is easily lost, like lightning in the sky. Whatever is born is subject to death and at the time of death it is only the imprints of the positive virtuous activities that you have done which will help you in the next life. Otherwise, at the time of death we leave everything behind: our relatives and wealth, and even our highly cherished body. Therefore, we should make a determination to engage in Dharma practice. By reflecting on the reality of death and gaining a strong conviction in it, we can come to see all the petty activities of the world as meaningless and inspire ourselves to engage in practice day and night.

In this very world there are more than five billion people. We all want happiness and do not want suffering. This is a fundamental common quality of us all, yet we adopt different measures to meet it based on our interest and mental capacity. Some people make their sole aim the accumulation of wealth. Others do not involve them­selves only with material prosperity but also try to ensure mental stability.

One category of humanity views spiritual practice as like poison or opium. Seeing it as an instrument of exploi­tation, they see spiritual practice as a fault and try to eliminate it. Another category of humanity believes that it is not only material prosperity that brings happiness. Consequently, they engage in spiritual practice to achieve mental peace and happiness. A third category adopts a neutral stance. It neither tries to eliminate spiritual prac­tice nor to adopt it. They simply engage in their day to day activities. Whether we practise the Dharma or not, the important thing is that we all want happiness. If we compare those who believe in spiritual practice with those who do not we will find that those who engage in spiritual practice have more mental stability and more mental happiness. So we can conclude that what we are doing is unmistaken.

Of course as individuals we are not all perfect. We do encounter various negative experiences, but even then we have the ability to endure the sufferings we encounter. What is more, when we engage in spiritual practice, we accumulate positive actions which are a cause for future happiness. Those who deny spiritual practice not only exhaust the fruit of what they have done earlier, but they do not accumulate causes and conditions for future hap­piness.

Even in exile we Tibetans have enough food to eat and enough clothes to wear. I think this is a positive result of our spiritual practice. It is because we are contented that we have enough things for our use. I think this is a clear indication that Tibetans have more spiritual merit than those who do not engage into practice. After the Chinese came to Tibet, they implemented their revolution and redistributed wealth to those who were poor. But we found that gradually those people who used to be wealthy were always successful and became prosperous again. Even if you allot wealth to those who did not have it before, because they lack the necessary merit, they tend to be unsuccessful and become poor again.

Success or the lack of it relates to the force of positive action that we have accumulated in the past. Therefore, whatever certain people do they are always successful, while others work very hard but do not meet with suc­cess. There are unseen causes and conditions which are responsible for one person’s success and for the failure of others.

Those of us who have a spiritual practice will be able to face problems and at the same time engage in positive thinking to be able to prepare for our long-term future. Therefore having accepted spiritual practice, it is not only beneficial for many lives to come, but it is actually very helpful in our daily life. If we expect all happiness to come from material prosperity, we are deceiving ourselves. We cannot deny that material prosperity brings comfort be­cause we do possess a physical body. But the main source of happiness is derived from mental tranquility and trans­formation of the mind.

It is not enough that we profess to be Buddhists. We should continue paying attention to the meaning taught in the Buddha’s teachings. We may have great reverence for the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, but we do not make much effort or attempt to study the Dharma texts. We tend to think that Dharma texts should be studied by monks in monasteries. Yet whether you are an ordained person or a lay person, it is extremely important to know what the Buddha taught.

When we pay homage to the image of the Buddha, it is not simply enough that we bow down to the image of the Buddha. We should know why we are paying homage to that image. In order to know what Buddha Shakyamuni’s qualities are, it is important to study his teachings. Just as you would judge a person’s behaviour or his attitude through listening to what he says, you should find out the validity of Buddha Shakyamuni him­self by listening to his teachings. It is not enough simply to come and attend a teaching without trying to under­stand the meaning. What is more important is that in your daily life you should try to study different texts. The way to start is initially to pick a short scripture and try to understand the main points. When you have understood the outline of the text, you can study it in more detail. Then you can turn to more complicated texts and so enhance your spiritual education. It is extremely impor­tant that ordained persons, the monks and nuns, engage in serious Dharma training and study. The purpose of your study should be the attainment of Buddhahood for the benefit of all other sentient beings. If you study with that motivation, whatever you do will become an impor­tant cause for accumulating positive virtue for the benefit of all suffering sentient beings.

We have been discussing the methods for training an individual of initial mental capacity. At that level, the suffering of bad states of rebirth is like true suffering and the ten unwholesome deeds are like the true origin of suffering. Liberation from bad states of rebirth and attain­ment of higher status is like true cessation. The path to attain that higher status is practice of the ten wholesome actions, which is like the true path. In order to practise the ten wholesome deeds sincerely we need to recognize the objects of refuge that is the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The better we understand the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha as the object of refuge, the better will be our understanding of the relationship between cause and effect.

When you die, you can’t be sure not to take a bad rebirth.

Only the Three Jewels offer certain protection from such fears.

Therefore make your practice of refuge steadfast

And follow its precepts without any lapse.

This depends on sound knowledge

Of black and white actions and their effects,

And adopting and discarding them in the right way.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seeks liberation, will do likewise.

The stages of the path concerning the individual of initial capacity deals mainly with how to rely on a spiritual teacher and how to engage in the means to liberate ourselves from bad states of rebirth. Whether we have a true sense of taking refuge in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha depends on whether we have accumulated the necessary causes and conditions. These are having a sense of fear of suffering and seeing the potential of the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha to help and protect us. In order to protect ourselves from falling into bad states of rebirth, it is important to think about death and impermanence. If we don’t, we might think that we can do the practice later. In the meantime we might meet with death, and having had no time to do spiritual practice, we will fall into bad states of rebirth.

When we think about such bad states of rebirth as the hells and so forth, we might sometimes wonder if they really exist. The Treasury of Knowledge not only describes the nature of the different beings in the hells, but even provides calculations to indicate where they are located. Although these measurements may not be entirely accu­rate, they suggest the possibility of different existences according to their various causes and conditions.

With regard to the formation of the universe, the Treasury of Knowledge explains a time when the universe abides, a time when it disintegrates, and a time when it is formed. That formation first takes place from out of empty space as the different elements are gradually formed. These explanations are quite in line with the scientific explanation. It also explains the existence of different sentient beings, such as animals, which leads to the issue of eating meat. If we are able to abstain from eating meat, it is extremely good.

When I was young and staying in The Potala Palace, I often noticed flocks of sheep being driven in by herds­men at the end of the day. They were being brought to slaughter and, feeling uneasy, I would call someone to release them and would pay handsomely for doing so. At that time I had no thought that by doing so I would prolong my life. My only concern was that these poor animals would die an untimely death. I was able to save the lives of many of those animals. We Tibetans are Buddhists but at the same time we are voracious meat-eaters. When we think about that, it might make us uneasy. In the rest of the world the number of fish and the numbers of different kinds of other small animals that are killed to be eaten is just countless.

Similarly, these days when we can wear clothes made of cotton and stuff other than fur, if instead we simply kill animals for their skins, it is extremely unfortu­nate. When I think of all these destructive activities in relation to animals, I feel that birth control is good, for if there were fewer human beings there would be less destruction. If we go into detail about the amount of animals that are killed, it is unimaginable. How many hens are being killed every day? How many fish are being killed? I once visited a poultry farm. To begin with, hens are used to lay eggs. During that time they are imprisoned in a metal cage for a few years. Then after two or three years, when they were unable to lay any more eggs, the only place for them to go is the kitchen.

When I travel in India, I see small metal cages with a few hens in then outside restaurants. We clearly do not have the slightest feeling about how much these poor birds suffer. We, who are unable to bear even the pain of a needle prick, are totally careless of the sufferings of other animals and birds. As human beings, when we encounter the slightest injustice or suffering, we immedi­ately complain. We go to court. But do these animals have a right to complain? When a stray dog is simply wander­ing in search of food, we throw stones at it to drive it away. These animals and birds have no courts to complain in, they have no friends from whom to seek support. We proclaim that to kill out of revenge is not good, that human execution is not good, but do the animals have such rights? We tend to think of domestic animals like sheep and goats as something to be bullied without showing the slightest concern for their welfare. The only fortunate thing is that because animals are so ignorant, they may not have as much fear as human beings.

Since there won’t be swift progress in accomplishing the highest path,

Unless you gain a life with all prerequisite features,

Train yourself in creating the causes, so that none are lacking.

Most important is to cleanse karmic obstructions and pollution

By the stains of misdeeds and transgressions through the three doors,

So constantly with care apply all four counteractions.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

A real aspiration for freedom won’t arise,

Without effort to think about the drawbacks of true suffering,

Unless you consider its source - the stages of involve­ment

In cyclic existence,

you will not know how to sever its root.

So cultivate repugnance for it and a wish for freedom

And cherish the knowledge of what binds us to this cyclic process.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

If we do not behave properly, when we leave this life, there is no guarantee that we will not also take birth as one of these animals or birds. It is important for us to under­stand that we encounter suffering because we have harmed other sentient beings. The cause of suffering is unwhole­some action. In order to find happiness we must eliminate unwholesome deeds and so free ourselves from suffer­ing. Of the three objects of refuge, the actual protector is the Dharma. We regard the Buddha as precious; we regard the Sangha as precious because the Dharma is so important. It is not because the Buddha is a creator. The Buddha comes into existence because of practice of the causes for the attainment of Buddhahood, which is the true path and the true cessation.

On one level the Dharma can refer to the three collections of scriptures, but the ultimate Dharma is the true cessation attained by eliminating disturbing emo­tions. When we counter the disturbing emotions and eliminate them at the root, we can attain a state which is free of them. This is called true cessation, which is also known as nirvana or liberation. When we achieve that state within ourselves, we will be protected; we will be saved from suffering. Therefore, our aim should be to attain the true path and true cessation.

We can start by avoiding the ten unwholesome ac­tions. The Tibetan word for disturbing emotion has the sense of being something like suffering. Therefore, when someone is suffering, Tibetans say that that person is subject to disturbing emotions, which means he or she is disturbed or afflicted. Attachment, anger and so forth are disturbing emotions and they are so called because as soon as they arise in our minds, we feel unhappy, we encounter suffering and our mental peace is disturbed. I think this is quite true. For example, here we are all listening to the Dharma in a relaxed way, with calmness of mind. But if we suddenly hear some bad news, it will immediately disturb our minds and we will encounter suffering. Similarly when we have such negative minds within us, we will be unable to sleep soundly. The mo­ment disturbing emotions arise, the calm and tranquility of our minds are disturbed, which makes us temporarily unhappy.

When we are overwhelmed by disturbing emotions, we lose our independence, because we almost involun­tarily engage in negative deeds. Therefore, the disturbing emotions are responsible for our suffering. The disturb­ing emotions are our real enemy. We do not want suffer­ing. We want happiness. But these disturbing emotions lead us into suffering. However, it is initially difficult to fight directly with these disturbing emotions when we are unprepared. So, the first stage of the practice, when we don’t have the capacity to fight the delusions directly, is to at least refrain from engaging in negative activities. To restrain ourselves from negative activities means not allowing ourselves to become overwhelmed by disturb­ing emotions. We should restrain ourselves, for example, from throwing stones at someone out of anger. Similarly, you might sometimes go to the market and out of attach­ment and delusion you might order a chicken to be slaughtered for you to eat. This is the sort of thing we should restrain ourselves from. So the first stage of prac­tice, which is mainly observed by individuals of initial capacity, is to restrain ourselves and prevent ourselves being overwhelmed by disturbing emotions.

As a second step, we need to establish that all dis­turbing emotions arise from ignorance or the misconcep­tion of self. Then we try to generate the antidote and fight directly with ignorance and the disturbing emotions.

Then the third stage of practice is that it is not enough to have removed ignorance and the misconception of self, it is important to remove even the imprints they leave behind, because these imprints are an obstruction to enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings.

When we are liberated from the root cause of disturb­ing emotions, which is ignorance, we attain liberation. And when we eliminate the imprints left behind by the ignorance and the disturbing emotions, we attain Bud­dhahood. Therefore, by generating the antidotes we can release ourselves from these different levels of fear. In order to find this right path, it is important to find a proper teacher like the Buddha. All our Dharma practices should be rooted in the notion of dependent arising. And it was Buddha Shakyamuni who had the capacity to voluntarily teach the meaning of dependent arising. Therefore, he is a valid teacher and the Sangha is the friend who con­stantly reminds about spiritual practice. The Sangha is like a nurse, always at the bedside of the sick person.

Next the text explains the practice for individuals with greater capacity.

The altruistic intention is the mainstay of the su­preme vehicle,

The foundation and basis of its powerful activities.

Like an elixir that turns the two stores to gold,

it’s a treasure of merit comprising every kind of good.

Knowing this, heroic Bodhisattvas make this pre­cious

And supreme attitude their quintessential practice.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

First it describes the generation of the awakening mind which is an unsurpassable practice, the source of happi­ness for ourselves and all other sentient beings, and the source of all excellent qualities. Entering into the Middle Way says, ‘Listeners and Solitary Buddhas were born from the Buddha; and the Buddhas were born from Bodhisattvas, and Bodhisattvas were born from compas­sion and the awakening mind.’

When we talk about generating the awakening mind, the exact meaning for the Tibetan words is ‘extending the mind.’ Ordinarily, when we always think about our own welfare, our mind is not extended but narrow. When we cease to think only about our own welfare, we give importance to the welfare of others. And when we think about the nature of interdependence, we take account of the importance of other sentient beings achieving happi­ness and how it is related to our own happiness. So when we care more for the welfare of other sentient beings than for ourselves, we call it ‘extending the mind.’

The actual nature of the awakening mind is that having engaged in the practice of liberating ourselves from suffering and having identified the nature of the disturbing emotions that obstruct the attainment of nir­vana or liberation, we address the possibility of removing even the imprints left behind by ignorance. Since igno­rance can be removed, because it is temporary and imper­manent, the imprints it leaves behind are also temporary and can be eradicated. These imprints left behind by ignorance obstruct the attainment of Buddha­hood.

When we attain Buddhahood, we gain omniscience. Prior to this, the potential of the clear light mind to know everything is obstructed by the imprints of ignorance. As soon as we remove that hindrance, which is called the obstruction to omniscience or knowledge, we achieve Buddhahood. At that level we will be able to know everything, especially the needs and mental dispositions of all suffering sentient beings, which enable us to do only those actions which will definitely benefit other people. If we do not know the needs and attitudes of other people, we will be unable to help them. Even if we have a very good motivation, if we do not know what it is that other people really want, we will not be able to help them. Unless we have a mind which is clearly aware of other people’s needs, we will not be able to benefit them. Having generated a wish to benefit other sentient beings, the omniscient mind is extremely important.

There are two levels of generating the awakening mind. One level aspires to work for the benefit of other sentient beings and the other aspires to attain Buddha­hood. The aspiration to fulfill the purposes of other sen­tient beings is the actual cause of the awakening mind and it is assisted by the aspiration to attain Buddhahood. We have to train on both these levels, which results in a mind possessing two aspects. The awakening mind is a won­derful, excellent and precious mind. In this life alone, not to speak of developing the fully fledged awakening mind, if you have even a trace of benevolence, you will have more friends around you. More people pat and share their food with a dog which is normally peaceful and calm. But no one approaches or feeds a dog that barks and chases everyone.

Similarly, if one member of a family has calmness of mind, then there will be greater peace within that family. On the other hand, if one member of a family is always angry and impatient, the family is headed for trouble. Usually when a family is very unsuccessful, people talk about there being hindrances from some other quarter, but I don’t think this is true. I think it is more likely something is wrong within the family, which is due to the mental attitude of the members of the family.

If you have a sense of respect, calmness and patience within your mind, then even if you meet someone you don’t know on the road, you easily will be able to make friends with him or her. On the other hand if you always remain suspicious, even if someone sincerely tells the truth, you will continue to doubt it. Someone may sin­cerely want to help you, but you will have doubts about it, which will lead to trouble. The reality is that there is nothing to do but depend on the help and kindness of other people. If we always treat other people or other beings as our enemies, if we are always suspicious of them, how can we expect to find lasting happiness? We are naturally sociable, unlike wild animals who go about their lives alone except in the mating season. Whether we like it or not, the reality is that we cannot survive without depending on others. Therefore it is inappropriate to think only of ourselves, ignoring the welfare of other people. It is extremely important to reduce our self-centered attitude and generate a mind that is concerned for the welfare of other people. The ultimate state of that mind is the generation of the awakening mind.

Once we have such a mind and we generate a deter­mination to sustain it for many lives to come, we will have lighted on the real source of happiness. The practice of generating the awakening mind is like the axis of great vehicle practice. If we have such an axis, all other practices will be useful and beneficial. The awakening mind is like an elixir that transforms everything into gold. Whatever extensive activities and conduct we pursue, this mind should be the basis. It is like a precious treasure which comprises all fine qualities. When we make a commit­ment to generate the awakening mind in order to attain Buddhahood, then whatever we do, whether we are awake or asleep, we will accumulate positive virtues. Because of our earlier determination to attain Buddha­hood for the benefit of all other sentient beings, even if we get drunk, our virtuous qualities will go on growing or multiplying. Under the influence of that mind taking a single footstep, or eating one morsel of food, will become a positive act. Even your inhalation and exhalation of breath will be beneficial to other sentient beings.

Therefore, even those activities which would nor­mally be regarded as negative can become positive, ben­eficial activities if they are motivated by the awakening mind. This is why the great bodhisattvas mainly culti­vated this supreme, precious mind. That was their main practice, whereas ordinarily our main practice is the recitation of mantras. Henceforth we should recognize that the practice of the awakening mind is the most important practice and that recitation of mantras and meditation on a personal deity with a multitude of hands and so forth is a secondary practice. Unless our medita­tion on such deities is based on the practice of the awak­ening mind, it will not be effective. Just as it is said that the only pathway to attain liberation is the generation of wisdom understanding emptiness, for the attainment of Buddhahood, there is no second path, it is only generation of the awakening mind.

If we try to be clever and ignore the welfare of other people, trying to derive the maximum benefit for our­selves, the result will be negative not only ultimately but also temporarily. Behaving that way, we will have no friends we can trust. This is what we experience in daily life. The real way of gaining advantage or benefit is to use human intelligence. It is important to use it in such a way that we derive the maximum happiness and benefit, temporarily and in the long run. To ensure long term happiness, we may temporarily have to undergo minor hardship. As human beings we should use our intelli­gence in the right way so that we can generate happiness within our own minds and within the minds of all other sentient beings. Since we have found this precious human life, if we can we should try to pursue those paths that are ultimately beneficial for ourselves and other sentient beings. At least we should avoid those activities which limit the happiness of other people.

Having generated the resolution or courage to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings, we have to actually engage in the practices of a bodhisattva. The bodhisattva’s very purpose in actualizing Buddhahood is to benefit all other sentient beings. Therefore, the practice includes the four means of gathering disciples and the practice of the six perfections. All the practices of a bodhisattva can be included within these six perfections.

The first concerns giving, about which the text says:

Giving is the wish-granting jewel fulfilling the hopes of living beings,

The best weapon with which to cut the knot of miserliness,

A Bodhisattva activity that gives rise to indomitable courage,

And spreads one’s fame in the ten directions.

Knowing this, the wise follow the good path

Of completely giving body, possessions and virtue.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

When we engage in the actual practice of giving, we should start with gifts that are easy to make and then gradually extend the scope. This is a great practice and knowing that we should ultimately be able to give away our bodies, wealth and virtuous qualities. The main aim of the practice of giving is to benefit other sentient beings, not to enhance our name and fame, or to enable us to accumulate qualities. The practice is to relieve the suffer­ings of other sentient beings. Therefore, we should know the proper time and the proper way to give and so forth. For example, medicine, which can be beneficial, given at the wrong time or to the wrong person, can be harmful.

Generally there are three kinds of giving, of which giving the Dharma or teaching is one and giving material help to birds, hungry dogs, beggars and so forth is an­other. For the giving of teaching it is not necessary to be a lama or sit on a high throne to teach. When we give someone a piece of good advice, encouraging him or her to overcome some negative habit, that in fact is giving Dharma. Nevertheless, both from the spiritual and gen­eral point of view giving teaching to other people is a wonderful practice. Doing so we can develop their intel­ligence and at the same time increase our own intelli­gence. The role of teacher is a great opportunity to serve students. If the teacher is sincere and teaches with a proper motivation, the education he or she gives will remain in the student’s mind a long time.

Similarly, the physician who gives the correct medi­cine to the sick is doing a great service. But if he or she works with sincere motivation to benefit the sick, whether the medicine cures the sickness or not, the patient will feel happy because he or she can trust the doctor. Because of the doctor’s concern, the patient feels encouraged and secure. That sense of hope actually contributes to a quicker recovery. Therefore professions like medicine and teach­ing, provided they are done with a good motivation, are great opportunities for people to practise Dharma through their work.

If we compare our Buddhist monks and nuns with their Christian counterparts, I think we are lagging far behind in terms of social activities. There are sincere Christian practitioners whose primary goal is fulfilling the words of God. But at the same time they engage in sincere social activities, which also indirectly help de­velop their tradition. Bearing this in mind, I have often told our monks and nuns that they can also play a great role in social service as teachers or physicians and so forth. This would also contribute directly to the develop­ment of the Buddha dharma.

Among the several thousand monks and nuns here in exile, there are indeed a few who, staying in isolation, are doing excellent spiritual practice. In that way they are able to develop real spiritual qualities and personal realization. They are examples of good spiritual practitio­ners, but it is also important that the ordained be more creative and more helpful in society. Even if you stay in a monastery or a nunnery, you can establish hospitals and schools within your institution. These days, in places like Japan, there are many schools which were established by the monasteries.

Giving Dharma or giving education, or helping sick people as a nurse, is very important, real practices of giving. We can also do the practice of giving through visualization and pray: ‘May I also be able to practice as the Bodhisattvas who have reached higher spiritual lev­els have done.’

The next perfection concerns ethics. The text says:

Ethical conduct is water that washes the stains of faulty action,

And moonlight dispelling the hot torment of disturb­ing emotions.

Glorious like Mount Meru among those of the nine states,

Its power subdues all beings, without use of threats.

Knowing this, the excellent safeguard, like their eyes,

The rules of conduct to which they’re wholly com­mitted.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

The way to restrain ourselves from faulty or unwhole­some deeds is not merely to pray that such faults do not fall upon us. We should first understand what negative activities are, because lack of knowledge is one of the ways in faults arise. If we do not know what such faults are, even if we are afflicted by them, we will not recognize their presence. Sometimes though we know the nature of the fault and respect the training, because of the power of disturbing emotions we engage in negative activities. We have to purify disturbing emotions at the grosser level first and then at the subtler level.

Another way in which the faults arise is due to carelessness. Although we may not be subject to attach­ment and anger to begin with, carelessness can provoke them. For example, we watch television or movies con­taining scenes that can provoke attachment and anger. On the one hand television is quite beneficial because it informs us about things that are happening in the wider world. It expands our horizons, but it also provides an opportunity for increasing negativities. Watching too many fight scenes can lead us to imitate them in our own behaviour. These are ways in which our tranquil mind can be disturbed. It is important therefore that in our day to day lives that we be alert and mindful. We should think, ‘I am a Buddhist, I am a spiritual practitioner, I am a follower of the Buddha.’ We should remind ourselves of this again and again.

If you have the opportunity to hunt an animal or kill a bird, at that point you should remember that it is improper as a follower of Buddha Shakyamuni to engage in such a deed. A few years ago I met a very good monk who told me that when he came to Lhasa he saw a Chinese selling a kind of snake which had been killed in a horrible way. When they caught one of these snakes, they would impale it through the eye onto to a nail in a plank of wood. He was so horrified by the scene that he requested me to pray for such suffering sentient beings.

Since ancient times we Tibetans have depended on eating meat, but we do not have the bad habit of eating small reptiles and tiny insects. Nor did we have battery poultry farms where thousands of hens are slaughtered. Although Tibetans eat meat, we have always set certain limits to it. Now there is every danger that Tibetans will acquire negative habits... So, when you have an opportunity to take the life of an animal, imme­diately remind yourself that you are a follower of the Buddha. If you are an ordained person, you should think that since you are wearing a religious robe, which is an indication of being an ordained follower of the Buddha, you should not behave in a way that brings disgrace to others.

To some extent it is true that in ancient times different monasteries would use their combined power to take certain things from other people, which mean they de­pended on wrong livelihood. There was a degeneration of the Buddha dharma and if we make a fine analysis of the causes of such downfalls, it is as Asanga said in his Thirty seven Practices, ‘Even though you are in the form of a spiritual practitioner you might engage in non-spiritual practices.’ In those times we had a kind of completely purified vision, not because we were pure, but because of lack of knowledge about the rest of the world. We took everything so much for granted. As a result certain activi­ties such as exploitation occurred.

We also have to be careful about our food. As novice monks and nuns as well as fully ordained bhikkshus we should be careful about the food we take in the afternoon. In general we are not supposed to eat then, but we are allowed to if our diet is insufficient. We can also say that we are unwell and take food after lunch. Let us say that this is correct, but even then we have to be careful and practice to the best of our capacity. As regards eating meat, we also have to be careful. In the texts on Monastic Discipline, eating meat is not completely prohibited, which is why in countries like Sri Lanka and Thailand they also do not hesitate to eat meat. They take whatever is given to them. But a practitioner of the great vehicle should be careful not to take too much meat, since we find in many of the great vehicle scriptures that taking meat is prohib­ited. Certain texts say that the meat we are eating is already lifeless, so there is no harm in it. There are also exceptions to be made for people who have liver prob­lems and so forth, who eat meat for health reasons. But generally speaking, we should try to refrain from too great consumption of meat, especially in small places like Dharamsala.

In all our daily activities, whether we are walking, sleeping, whatever we are doing, those of us who are monks and nuns should always remind ourselves that we are ordained persons. If you become overwhelmed by disturbing emotions, you should not just continue in the same manner, you should confess it. We should put a stop to the faults of our mental and physical activities in dependence on conscientiousness and mindfulness. We should use awareness to discriminate whether something is worth doing or not and then do it with mindfulness...

Conscientiousness and mindfulness stop mental dis­traction. When we strengthen the power of mindfulness and conscientiousness, the subtle internal mental distrac­tions cease. If you do not already have some practice of mindfulness and conscientiousness, it will be extremely difficult for you to start, but through gradual practice you can empower and strengthen it. Using morality as the foundation, we practise meditative stabilization and con­centration. Through that we gain at least a strong one-pointed mind, and then we can develop a very powerful discriminative awareness. When we have clear conscien­tiousness and mindfulness, we will have similar success­ful results when we do deity yoga practice. Otherwise our practice will just be a rough visualization, which will not be effective.

Ethical conduct is extremely important. There is the ethics of stopping unwholesome deeds, the ethics of amassing virtuous qualities and, one of the most impor­tant purposes of ethics, helping other people. Unless we discipline ourselves, we cannot help other people. Help­ing other people means more that mere academic study of the scriptures. Therefore in order to observe ethics for the benefit of other sentient beings, we should first observe the ethics of amassing virtuous qualities and prior to that we must observe the ethics of refraining from negative conduct. We should observe the practice of the four thorough abandonments.

The ethics of refraining from negative conduct is like water that cleanses our mental stream that cleanses our body, speech and mind. It is like moonlight dispelling the heat of suffering. When we restrain the disturbing emo­tions again and again, their strength gradually decreases. Someone who turns away from negative activities re­strains the negative mind and has a sincere practice of ethics, is like Mount Meru standing above all other hu­man beings. This is explained in a text which says that a bhikkshu who properly observes ethics shines out among others. All beings bow before such a one without his exerting power or force. Knowing this we must protect and guard ethics, whether it is the ethics of individual liberation, the ethics of the Bodhisattva, or the ethics of tantric practice. We should guard ethics as we would guard our own eyes.

Next is the practice of patience, which is especially important for Bodhisattvas.

Patience is the finest adornment of the powerful

And the best austerity to scourge disturbing emo­tions.

It is the Garuda, the snake of anger’s enemy

And a hard shield against the weapons of harsh language.

Knowing this, grow accustomed in every manner

to the stout armour of supreme patience.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

Buddha Shakyamuni’s teaching is based or rooted in compassion, and the opposite of compassion is anger and hatred. The antidote that directly opposes hatred is pa­tience. Therefore, the practice of patience is extremely important. Patience is of various kinds: enduring harm, patiently accepting suffering and certainty in respect to Dharma practice.

One of the strongest obstructions to the practice of patience is when someone harms us. If we are able to overcome the urge to retaliate, it will be like removing a big boulder from the path and our practice of patience will be successful. The Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life explains in detail how to generate patience and how to employ antidotes. Through such practice we are also preparing for a successful practice of concentration. Simi­larly, when we talk about successful spiritual practice, we are talking about how to fight disturbing emotions. We are waging a war against disturbing emotions. In the course of fighting disturbing emotions, we will definitely encounter hardship and problems. The disturbing emo­tions that are our opponents are, if not more powerful than us, at least equally powerful.

The wisdom discriminating right from wrong is what actually fights the war against disturbing emotions. Since disturbing emotions are so powerful, while waging war against them we may get physically and mentally tired. There is also a possibility of losing the spirit to fight anymore, so it is extremely important to undertake the practice of patience, voluntarily accepting suffering. We can take an example from the military exercises. Soldiers do so many exercises in peacetime, voluntarily undergo­ing hardship so that when they have to fight they are prepared. Therefore, the more we practise patience, the better will we be able to undertake spiritual practice, because we will not be defeated by hardship.

The food of anger is a disturbed mind. I think this is a crucial point. Let us consider policy of the world’s different nations. There are many different policies be­cause by accumulating certain causes and conditions we experience certain results. And within the cause there are two causes: the immediate cause and distant cause. Our problem is that we usually only consider the immediate cause and do not even think about the distant cause. Consequently, when the immediate cause comes into effect, there is hardly anything that can be done. The war in former Yugoslavia is an example. Problems have arisen there because of disregarding the distant causes of the trouble. If the right measures had been taken at the time of the distant causes, the present problems could have been prevented. Once things reach a late stage, they are difficult to control.

What Shantideva has said in the Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life is absolutely true. The food for anger is a disturbed mind. Imagine, for example, that our minds are upset when we get up on a particular day. Because of this we do not feel like talking to our friends and relatives and we easily get agitated and become angry. In such circumstances the slightest condition can provoke us and anger is aroused within us. If, on the other hand, we had a tranquil, undisturbed mind to begin with, then even if we face a difficult situation, we will not become angry. Therefore, it is important to transform the mind, or train the mind in such a way that it does not become disturbed. In order to practise patience success­fully, we need to think about the faults of disturbing emotions and the qualities of patience.

The practice of patience is the supreme adornment of the powerful and mighty. If we have patience, even when someone accuses or insults us, we will keep smiling. If we have no patience and are overcome by anger, even if our face is normally beautiful, we will immediately become ugly. Patience is a beautiful ornament for everyone, whether we are young or old, a lay person or ordained. Having a clear mind and a smiling face is the best adorn­ment, and of all the different kinds of hardship, the hardship to maintain patience is the most worthwhile... ...

Next is the practice of effort, the text says:

Armoured with unremitting and steady effort,

Scriptural knowledge and insight grow like the wax­ing moon.

All your activities will become meaningful,

and you will complete successfully whatever you undertake.

Knowing this, Bodhisattvas exert themselves to make

Powerful effort which dispels all laziness.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

Here we are talking about making an effort towards positive qualities. In fact the Tibetan word for effort here refers explicitly to taking delight in virtuous qualities. When we have the armour of right effort, all the spiritual qualities will increase like the waxing moon. There is a saying for students that if you memorize one word a day, after 100 days you will have remembered 100 words. This is the way to increase your positive qualities. Such train­ing is extremely important.

Whether we are concerned with developing inner spiritual realizations or studying the meaning of scrip­tures, we must make effort like the steady flow of a river. Many of us, myself included, make a very strong effort for a short time and then rest. Our attempts are not persistent like a louse, but sporadic like a flea. The great master Gungthangpa rightly said that for a few days we even forget to take food and make tremendous effort. As soon as we start to study, we want to become a great scholar, but after only a few days we are carried away by distrac­tions. Such people have no qualities at all. Therefore, we must make effort like a steady flow of water. Then all our qualities will multiply and develop and whatever activi­ties we adopt will be meaningful in accordance with spiritual practice. Whatever work we start we will be able to complete with success. Knowing this, the great Bodhisattvas have made extensive effort to overcome laziness.

Next is meditation on concentration, which is like a king who has control over the mind.

Concentration is a king with dominion over the mind.

Once placed, it remains immovable, like the king of mountains.

When directed, it engages with every kind of virtu­ous object,

And induces the great bliss of a malleable body and mind.

Knowing this, powerful yogis continually practise

Meditative stabilization, which defeats all inimical distraction.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

At present we are controlled by our minds and our minds are overpowered by disturbing emotions, so we involun­tarily engage in negative activities. We may generate certain minor virtuous qualities, but because we lack concentration they tend to be weak. If we had concentra­tion, one-pointedness of mind, it would be quite helpful. For example, when we sleep most of the grosser levels of consciousness dissolve. If we have some pleasant or unpleasant experience during a dream or nightmare, when we awake we can still feel its influence. Although we know that it took place in a dream, while we were asleep, when we wake up we can still feel its impact. If the dream is bad, when we wake up we feel quite negative and our mind is disturbed. When we awake after a good dream, we feel happy. This indicates a great difference in terms of impact between what is experienced by the grosser and subtler levels of mind. Therefore, if our mind is more concentrated, we will have better control over our virtuous practice. For this reason concentration is called the king of the mind.

Concentration means that when we want to place our mind on a particular object, it will stay there like a mountain. This is how it is explained in terms of medita­tive stabilization. Whether we do analytical meditation or one-pointed concentration, the attainment of meditative stability is extremely important. Through such practice we will be able to induce the experience of bliss which makes our body and mind functional. Knowing that, great yogis constantly rely on meditative stabilization because it destroys the enemy of mental distraction. Of course, the achievement of one-pointed mind is not a practice unique to Buddhism. But because one-pointedness of mind is so important, we find both in the Sutras and Tantras explanations of how to achieve a one-pointed mind.

According to the general explanation, we should first think about the importance and qualities of meditative stabilization. In that way we generate a wish to acquire those qualities, we generate faith and make the right effort, which dispels laziness and attains pliancy. Then we should focus steadily on the object without losing sight of it. Not only should we not lose sight of it, but it is important that the mind should have a clear image of the object. The mind should be intense, sharp and clear. Lack of clarity of the mind with regard to the object the result of mental laxity. Being unable to remain with the object is the result of mental excitement. Laxity and excitement are the major hindrances to meditative stabilization. As an antidote to mental laxity we should intensify the one-pointedness of our minds and when our minds get excited we should calm them down.

On this basis we should achieve a faultless medita­tive stabilization, starting with the nine stages of medita­tive stabilization, such as setting the mind, continuously setting the mind and so forth. In this way we can achieve a calmly abiding mind. We can take any object to achieve calm abiding, but because there are many advantages and great merit in doing so, according to the Sutra tradition we can take an image of Buddha Shakyamuni as our object. When we do tantric practice, we can focus on the deity.

Next is the perfection of wisdom, about which the text says:

Wisdom is the eye for seeing profound suchness.

It’s the path which totally uproots worldly existence,

And the treasure of knowledge praised in all the scriptures,

Renowned as the best lamp to dispel the darkness of confusion.

Knowing this, the wise who seek liberation

Cultivate this path with every effort.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

Wisdom is also called discriminative awareness. Nagarjuna has said that our ultimate object is the attain­ment of nirvana and enlightenment, and that to achieve them we need faith and compassion assisted by wisdom. Unless the practice of compassion is assisted by wisdom, it will not be effective. Similarly, even if we have faith, it too should be assisted by compassion or wisdom. With­out wisdom, faith becomes like blind faith. It may not be blind faith exactly, but because we do not see the reason for it, it is like blind faith. In that case we can easily be led onto a wrong path, because we have no proper reason to follow. On the other hand, if we have generated faith based on wisdom and reason, then even if someone tries to mislead us, we will not trust him. Similarly, if our practice of compassion is supported by the practice of wisdom, having taken responsibility for helping other sentient beings, we will be able to achieve the desired goal.

There are various kinds of wisdom, such as the wisdom understanding the five sciences and the wisdom understanding ultimate truth. Since we are dealing here with the achievement of liberation from cyclic existence, we are mainly concerned with ultimate wisdom. There­fore the text explains that wisdom is like the eye to see profound suchness. Even if we have not realized suchness directly, if we have a good understanding of the meaning of suchness, it will tear up the root of cyclic existence. This is the treasure of all qualities which is praised in all scriptures. Although we find various subjects explained different ways in the scriptures, they all finally come down to the most important point, which is the meaning of dependent arising and emptiness.

Therefore Tsongkhapa has said in his Praise of Depen­dent Arising, his praise to Buddha Shakyamuni, ‘All the teaching that you have given boils down to the teaching of dependent arising.’ This is the best lamp dispelling the darkness of ignorance. Through wisdom we gather many different levels of knowledge. At the highest level it is because of the wisdom understanding selflessness that we are able to overcome the misconception of self. So, knowing this, the wise who desire liberation try to gener­ate wisdom in general and particularly the wisdom un­derstanding ultimate truth.

In order to understand the meaning of suchness, Tsongkhapa himself studied many scriptures by great Indian and Tibetan spiritual teachers. Therefore because the venerable spiritual teacher has with much effort prac­tised this path, we should do likewise.

When we talk about the wisdom understanding selflessness, we have to identify what we mean by self­lessness. We can have many wisdoms, the wisdom under­standing Tibetan, the wisdom understanding Chinese, the wisdom understanding English and so forth. Simi­larly, there are many wisdoms in terms of their function, such as great wisdom, clear wisdom, quick wisdom and so forth. Nowadays, scientists also explain that no one knows the complete potential of the human brain, nor are we able to use our brain fully, which I think this is an interesting point. Whether you call it the brain or the human mind, we have a great potential to discover subtle points. Scientists point out that there remain many parts of the brain which are unused or which we are unable to use. This implies that there is no limit to the dimension of the human mind.

When we talk about selflessness, we are talking about the absence of self. We need to know what the self that is being negated here is. The self is negated here in terms of mind. Something which is the objection of nega­tion for the mind is something which does not exist. If it were to exist, mental reasoning could not refute it. If it is an object of negation of the path, it should be existent. When we engage in practice of the path, that object of negation is something that exists but is not useful, so we eliminate it by cultivating the path.

The selflessness we are talking about here is the absence of a self which has never existed before. Now you might ask if it is a self which is nonexistent, why we should talk about the absence of such a self. Even though such a self is nonexistent, because of our misconception we think that such a self exists. Because of this wrong notion we get confused and because of that we engage in nega­tive activities. Therefore, what we are trying to establish here is that the self conceived of by a wrong consciousness or wrong mind does not exist. When we come to a conclusion through analysis that such a self is nonexist­ent, all the other levels of conceptual thought induced by such wrong understanding of self will cease to exist.

Most Buddhist tenets explain about selflessness. There are various levels to the meaning of selflessness: selfless­ness which is accepted in common by all the four schools of tenets; the unique presentation of the meaning of selflessness and the self that is to be refuted by them in terms of the Mind Only school; and also the presentation made by the Middle Way School who follow Sutra and the Middle Way Consequentialists. By gradually coming to understand all these different levels of presentation, we should acquire a good understanding of what the object of negation is. Consequently, when we negate the object of negation, we generate the wisdom understanding emptiness.

We have been dealing with the section on the path for individuals of great mental capacity. We have discussed how the generation of the awakening mind is the only way to achieve Buddhahood, the general Bodhisattva practices, and the special training in calm abiding and special insight. We have completed explanation of both calm abiding and special insight and here we are dealing with the verse which explains that we should practice calm abiding and special insight together.

Single-pointed concentration, alone, is not seen

To have the power to cut the root of cyclic existence.

Wisdom, without a calmly abiding mind, cannot stop

The disturbing, emotions, no matter how long you analyze.

Hence, mount the wisdom which perfectly knows reality

On the unswerving steed of calm abiding.

With the sharp weapon of middle-way reasoning, free from extremes,

Which demolishes the focus of extreme conceptions,

Through expansive wisdom which properly analyzes

Give rise to the intelligence which understands real­ity.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

One-pointed mental concentration alone is not enough to tear up the root of cyclic existence. Similarly, even if we have a very profound wisdom understanding the mean­ing of emptiness, unless we are able to penetrate deep into the object of our meditation, we will not be able to use the full power of the mind. Therefore we should mount this wisdom that understands the ultimate mode of existence of all phenomena on the horse of unfluctuating calm abiding, and employ the reasoning of the middle way, free of the two extremes. Then we will be able to destroy the misconception of self.

No question that familiarity with single-pointedness

Brings about meditative stabilization! But seeing that

Even correct analytical discrimination produces

Immutable stabilization firmly fixed on reality,

Effort to achieve the union of calm abiding and special insight

Is something amazingly admirable.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

emotions, no matter how long you analyze.

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

We will achieve meditative stabilization not only through one-pointed concentration, but also through the mind’s engaging in discriminative analysis, which also induces a stable mind. Therefore, we should make effort in both these practices.

Cultivating space-like emptiness during meditative equipoise

And illusion-like emptiness in the subsequent pe­riod

Unifies skilful means and wisdom, which is praised

As that which makes the deeds of Bodhisattvas go beyond.

Having understood this, it is the custom of the fortu­nate

Not to be satisfied with a partial path.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

During meditative stabilization we meditate on the mean­ing of emptiness as having the nature of space. In other words, we have reflected on the meaning of the selfless­ness of person and the selflessness of phenomena, by using various logical reasonings, such as the reason of dependent arising, the reason eliminating the four ex­tremes and so forth. Based on these various kinds of logical reasonings we have eliminated the object of nega­tion and have then meditated on that. Since we have gained a good understanding of the meaning of empti­ness during meditative stabilization, when things appear to us as having intrinsic existence, we can reflect that although things appear this way, this is all because of ignorance and my negative mind.

Because of the force of our earlier understanding, we will be able to see everything as an illusion. Although things appear to have intrinsic existence, in actuality they are devoid of it. Therefore, our understanding during the post meditative state will also empower our meditational practice. And successful meditational practice will influ­ence the post meditative state. In that way we will be able to use method and wisdom together. They will contribute to each other rather than contradict each other. These two practices contribute to the achievement of the two bodies of the Buddha, the Form Body and the Truth Body. Therefore, it is important to engage in a full rather than a partial practice of the path.

This is the common requirement for both supreme paths,

For the causal and resultant Great Vehicle.

Once it is properly developed,

turn to a skilled cap­tain as protector

And venture on the high seas of the classes of tantra,

Following the complete oral instructions.

You thereby make your life of freedom and fortune meaningful.

This is what my revered and holy teacher did,

And I, who seek liberation, will do likewise.

First we should listen well to the meaning of positive practice. Then we should reflect on the meaning of what we have heard and engage in meditation. Through hear­ing, thinking and meditation we should generate the path and by depending on the instruction and guidance of a skillful vajra master, a great scholar and realized being, we should enter onto the great ocean of Tantra. If we are able to supplement tantric practice with the practice of Sutra, we will achieve the full instruction and make our lives meaningful. Even if we are unable to attain the state of Buddhahood in this very life, because we have engaged in a complete practice we will leave a deep imprint on our minds. Through successive lives we will travel from happiness to happiness and finally attain Buddhahood.

There may be quite a few among us, including my­self, who are addicted to Dharma practice and always participate in these kinds of religious teachings. But there may also be many people who are hearing such teachings over an extended duration for the first time. The impor­tant thing is to keep what you have learned in your mind and to sustain the practice. Since you have received this commentary to Abridged Stages of the Path, try to read it and reflect on the meaning. As you read the text try to remember the meaning that has been explained and try to understand it. Once you are sure about the meaning you should reflect and meditate on it again and again so that it will remain deep within your mind.

Therefore, you should first find out what to meditate on and then you should meditate continuously and make your mind familiar with the practice or the teaching. First glance over the entire stages of the path and then when you engage in the actual practice to gain experience, start from the beginning and acquire experience in a system­atic and orderly way. A time will come when you will have a good understanding of the essence of the whole Stages of the Path teaching. If you meditate further on that, the object you have been meditating on will become close to your mind. At that time you can be sure that if you meditate it will be useful and successful. In that way you will gain experience of the subject based on your practice of meditation. Gradually you will reach a stage where you do not have to make much effort to make your mind stay on the object.

Experience based on effort means that there is a stage when you reflect on a particular meaning of the text using reason and logic. You will be able to focus your mind on it and know what it means, but you may not be able to understand or meditate on it without using reason and logic. That means you are making effort to understand the text. If you do such practice continuously, you will gradu­ally achieve the level called effortless engagement, where your mind will not need to use reason and logic to understand the meaning. At the present time we are so overwhelmed by disturbing emotions that they never lose their hold on us, they are always with us. If you make your mind familiar with the positive practices too, a time will come when the positive influence is so strong that you cannot escape it.

In all four Tibetan Buddhist traditions we find guru-yoga practices very important and helpful, so they have a crucial role. You can do whatever guru-yoga practice belongs to your particular tradition.

This completes the Abridged Stages of the Path. The next lines explain the purpose for which Tsongkhapa composed this text and dedicate the virtue of having done so.

I have explained in words easy to understand

The complete path which pleases the Conquerors,

To familiarize myself with it

And also to help others who are fortunate.

Through the virtue created, may all living beings

Never be separated from this pure and good path.

This was the prayer made by my revered and holy teacher,

And I, who seek liberation, make the same prayer.

-----------

It is through the spiritual mentor’s kindness

That one encounters the teaching of the unsurpassable teacher.

I, therefore, dedicate this virtue so that all living beings

May be cared for by excellent spiritual friends.

May I and others be reborn as the main followers

Of my spiritual teacher Losang Drakpa

In the Joyous Land or the Land of Bliss

Or in whatever pure realm in which he dwells.

First seek extensively to hear many teachings,

Then view the whole textual tradition as personal advice,

Finally practise continually, day and night,

And dedicate it all to the flourishing of the teachings.

---

His Holiness’s explanation, which was given at Thekchen Choling, Dharamsala in the Spring 1993, was translated by Geshe Lobsang Jorden and edited by Jeremy Russell. Tsongkhapa’s root text was translated by Ruth Sonam, who retains the copyright; it cannot be reproduced with­out the translator’s permission.

From CHÖ YANG - The Voice of Tibetan Religion & Culture No.7. Editors: Pedron Yeshi & Jeremy Russell.

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