Copyright © 2002 John Bullitt
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A quick glance
through the pages of the Pali Text Society's publications catalogue should
be enough to convince anyone that there is much more to classical Pali
literature than the Tipitaka alone. Intermingled with the familiar
Nikayas, Vinaya texts, and Abhidhamma are scores of titles with long,
scarcely-pronounceable Pali names. Although many western students of
Buddhism may be unacquainted with these works (indeed, most have never
been translated into English), these books have for centuries played a
crucial role in the development of Buddhist thought and practice across
Asia and, ultimately, the West. In fact, in some countries they are as
deeply treasured as the suttas themselves. But what are these ancient
books, and what relevance do they have to the western student of Buddhism
in the 21st century? Although complete answers to these
questions lie well beyond the range of my abilities, I hope that this
short document will provide enough of a road map to help orient the
interested student as he or she sets out to explore this vast corpus of
Buddhist literature.
The
Tipitaka (Pali Canon)
assumed its final form at the
Third Buddhist
Council (ca. 250 BCE) and was first committed to writing sometime in
the 1st c. BCE. Shortly thereafter Buddhist scholar-monks in
Sri Lanka and southern India began to amass a body of secondary
literature: commentaries on the Tipitaka itself, historical chronicles,
textbooks, Pali grammars, articles by learned scholars of the past, and so
on. Most of these texts were written in Sinhala, the language of Sri
Lanka, but because Pali -- not Sinhala -- was the lingua franca of
Theravada, few Buddhist scholars outside Sri Lanka could study them. It
wasn't until the 5th c. CE, when the Indian monk Buddhaghosa
began the laborious task of collating the ancient Sinhala commentaries and
translating them into Pali, that these books first became accessible to
non-Sinhala speakers around the Buddhist world. These commentaries (Atthakatha)
offer meticulously detailed explanations and analyses -- phrase-by-phrase
and word-by-word -- of the corresponding passages in the Tipitaka.
After Buddhaghosa the catalogue of
post-canonical Pali literature continued to grow with the addition of
commentaries by both Buddhadatta (5th c.) and Dhammapala (6th c.),
and sub-commentaries (Tika) by Dhammapala on
several of Buddhaghosa's Atthakathas. During this time, and in the
centuries that followed, other writers prepared Pali translations of
additional early Sinhala texts. These ranged from poetic
hymns in celebration of the Buddha, to chronicles
tracing the first millennium of Buddhist history, to detailed
Abhidhamma textbooks. Most of the major post-canonical
works, including the sub-commentaries, were completed by the 12th c.
Post-canonical Pali literature supplements
the Tipitaka in several important ways. First, the chronicles and
commentaries provide a vital thread of temporal continuity that links us,
via the persons and historical events of the intervening centuries, to the
Tipitaka's world of ancient India. A Tipitaka without this accompanying
historical thread would forever be an isolated anachronism to us, its
message lost in clouds of myth and fable, its pages left to gather dust in
museum display cases alongside ancient Egyptian mummies. These texts
remind us that the Dhamma is not an artifact but a practice, and
that we belong to a long line of seekers who have endeavored, through
patient practice, to keep these teachings alive.
Second, almost everything we know today
about the early years of Buddhism comes to us from these post-canonical
books. Though the archaeological evidence from that era is scant and the
Tipitaka itself contains only a handful of passages describing events that
followed the Buddha's death[1], the
commentaries and chronicles
contain a wealth of historical information with which we are able to
partially reconstruct the early history of Buddhism. The texts illuminate
a host of important historical events and trends: how the Tipitaka came to
be preserved orally; when it was first written down, and why; how the
Tipitaka came close to extinction; how the Buddha's teachings spread
across south Asia; how and when the various schools and factions within
Buddhism arose; and so on. But these are not just idle concerns for the
amusement of academicians. Any practitioner, of any century, stands to
benefit from understanding how the early Buddhists lived, how they put the
Buddha's teachings into practice, what challenges they faced; we stand to
learn from those who have gone before. And there are other lessons to be
learned from history. For example, knowing that it was the actions of just
a few individuals that averted the extinction of the Tipitaka[2]
reminds us that it is ultimately up to individuals like ourselves to
safeguard the teachings today. Without the post-canonical texts important
lessons like these -- if not the Tipitaka itself -- might have been lost
forever in the mists of time.
Third, these texts -- particularly the
commentaries -- help us make sense of the suttas and give us clues about
their context that we might otherwise miss. For example, the famous
Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10) is popularly cited today as evidence that all one needs to achieve
Awakening is a week or two of unrelenting mindfulness practice. But the
commentary (Papañcasudani) suggests another viewpoint. It explains that
the Buddha's audience for this particular discourse (the villagers of
Kammasadammam) were already well established in their practice of
mindfulness and virtue. They were not coming to meditation practice "cold"
but were, in fact, unusually well prepared to receive this deep teaching
-- a point not apparent from the text of the sutta itself. The commentary
thus reminds us that there are some important fundamentals to be developed
before one undertakes intensive meditation practice.
Finally, the commentaries often contain
magnificent stories to illustrate and amplify upon points of Dhamma that
are made in the suttas. For example,
Dhp 114 takes on a much richer meaning in light of the commentary's background
story -- the famous parable of Kisagotami and the mustard seed.[3]
Commentarial stories like this one (and there are many more) offer
valuable Dhamma teachings in their own right.
One might reasonably wonder: how can a
collection of texts written a thousand years after the Buddha's death
possibly represent his teachings reliably? How can we be sure they aren't
simply derivative works, colored by a host of irrelevant cultural
accretions? First of all, although many of these texts were indeed first
written in Pali a thousand years after the Buddha, most Sinhala versions
upon which they were based were written much earlier, having themselves
been passed down via an ancient and reliable oral tradition. But (one
might object) mustn't those early texts themselves be suspect, since they
are based only on hearsay? Perhaps, but by this argument we should reject
the entire oral tradition -- and hence the entire Tipitaka itself, which
similarly emerged from an oral tradition long after the Buddha's death.
Surely that is taking things too far.
But what of the credentials of the
commentators themselves: can their words be trusted? In addition to living
a monastic life immersed in Dhamma, the compilers of the commentaries
possessed unimpeachable literary credentials: intimate acquaintance with
the Tipitaka, mastery of the Pali and Sinhala languages, and expert skill
in the art of careful scholarship. We have no reason to doubt either their
abilities or the sincerity of their intentions.
And what of their first-hand understanding
of Dhamma: if the commentators were scholars first and foremost, would
they have had sufficient meditative experience to write with authority on
the subject of meditation? This is more problematic. Perhaps commentators
like Buddhaghosa had enough time (and accumulated merit) both for
mastering meditation and for their impressive scholarly pursuits; we will
never know. But it is noteworthy that the most significant discrepancies
between the Canon and its commentaries concern meditation -- in
particular, the relationship between concentration meditation and
insight.[4] The question of the authority of
the post-canonical texts thus remains a point of controversy within
Theravada Buddhism.
It is important to remember that the
ultimate function of the post-canonical texts is -- like that of the
Tipitaka itself -- to assist the student in the quest for
nibbana, the highest
goal of Buddhist practice. Concerns about authorship and authority recede
when the texts are subjected to the same healthy skeptical attitude and
empirical approach that should be familiar to every student of the suttas.
If a commentary sheds light on a murky corner of a sutta or helps us
understand a subtle point of Vinaya or of Abhidhamma, or if the chronicles
remind us that we hold the future history of Dhamma in our hands, then to
that extent they help us clear the path ahead. And if they can do even
that much, then -- no matter who wrote them and from whence they came --
these texts will have demonstrated an authority beyond reproach.[5]
In the following guide, I have arranged
the most popular post-canonical titles thematically and by date (Common
Era). Authors' names are followed by the date of authorship (if known).
The authors of these texts were all monks, but for the sake of concision,
I have dropped the honorific "Ven." from their names. Each
non-commentarial title is followed by a brief description. Many of these
descriptions were lifted verbatim from other sources (see
Sources, below). Page numbers from these sources
are given in the braces {}. Most of these titles have been published in
romanized Pali by the Pali Text Society (PTS); the few for which English
translations are available are noted with a dagger (†), followed by the
translator, date of translation, and publisher.
Contents:
Source Text |
Commentary
(Atthakatha) |
Subcommentary
(Tika) |
VINAYA PITAKA |
Samantapasadika (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) |
Vajirabuddhi-tika (Vajirabuddhi;
11-12th c.)
Saratthadipani (Sariputta; 12th c.)
Vimativinodani (Mahakassapa of Cola; 12th c.)
|
|
Patimokkha |
Kankhavitarani (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) |
Vinayatthamañjusa (Buddhanaga; 12th c.) |
|
SUTTA PITAKA |
|
Digha Nikaya |
Sumangalavilasini (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) |
Dighanikaya-tika (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
|
Majjhima Nikaya |
Papañcasudani (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) |
Majjhimanikaya-tika (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
|
Samyutta Nikaya |
Saratthappakasini (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) |
Samyuttanikaya-tika (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
|
Anguttara Nikaya |
Manorathapurani (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) |
Saratthamañjusa-tika (Sariputta; 12th c.) |
|
Khuddaka Nikaya |
|
|
Khuddakapatha |
Paramatthajotika (I) (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.)
|
- |
|
|
Dhammapada |
Dhammapada-atthakatha (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.)
†(E.W. Burlingame, 1921, PTS) |
- |
|
|
Udana |
Paramatthadipani (I)/Udana-atthakatha
(Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Itivuttaka |
Paramatthadipani (II)/Itivuttaka-atthakatha (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Suttanipata |
Paramatthajotika (II)/Suttanipata-atthakatha (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) |
- |
|
|
Vimanavatthu |
Paramatthadipani (III)/Vimanavatthu-atthakatha (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Petavatthu |
Paramatthadipani (IV)/Petavatthu-atthakatha (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Theragatha |
Paramatthadipani (V)/Theragatha-atthakatha (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Therigatha |
Paramatthadipani (VI)/Therigatha-atthakatha (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Jataka |
Jatakatthavannana/Jataka-atthakatha (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.)
†(various, 1895, PTS) |
- |
|
|
Niddesa |
Sadhammapajotika (Upasena; 5th c.) |
- |
|
|
Patisambhidamagga |
Sadhammappakasini (Mahanama; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Apadana |
Visuddhajanavilasini (unknown) |
- |
|
|
Buddhavamsa |
Madhuratthavilasini (Buddhadatta; 5th c.)
†(I.B. Horner, 1978, PTS) |
- |
|
|
Cariyapitaka |
Paramatthadipani (VII)/Cariyapitaka-atthakatha (Dhammapala; 6th c.) |
- |
|
|
Nettipakarana
Petakopadesa
Milindapañha |
No commentaries exist for these books,
which appear only the Burmese edition of the Tipitaka. See
Nettipakarana,
Petakopadesa, and Milindapañha,
below. |
|
ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA |
|
Dhammasangani |
Atthasalini
(Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) †(Pe Maung Tin, 1920, PTS) |
Linatthapada-vannana (Ananda Vanaratanatissa; 7-8th c.) |
|
Vibhanga |
Sammohavinodani (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.) †(U Narada,
1962, PTS) |
- |
|
Katthavatthu
Puggalapaññatti
Dhatukatha
Yamaka
Patthana |
Pañcappakaranatthakatha
(Buddhaghosa; 5th c.). This commentary covers all five
books. English translations exist for the portions concerning the
Katthavatthu †(B.C. Law, 1940, PTS), Dhatukatha †(U Narada, 1962,
PTS), and Patthana †(U Narada, 1969, PTS) |
-
-
-
-
- |
-
Nettipakarana and Petakopadesa
(Mahakaccayana?; circa 1st c.?). "The Book of Guidance" and
"Instruction on the Pitaka," respectively. These books are introductions
to the teachings of Buddhism. The source material derives directly from
the Sutta Pitaka. {HPL pp. 100,117-18}
These two books appear in the Khuddaka Nikaya of
the Burmese Tipitaka (but not in the Thai or Sri Lankan). †(Ñanamoli,
1962 & 1964, PTS)
- Milindapañha
(author unknown; beginning of the Common Era). "Questions of Milinda." A
record of the dialogues between King Milinda (the Bactrian Greek king
Menander, r. 2nd c. BCE, who ruled over much of what is now
Afghanistan) and the elder monk Nagasena concerning key points of
Buddhist doctrine. {QKM p. 4} The text was probably based
on a Sanskrit work composed around the beginning of the Common Era, and
was translated into Pali in Sri Lanka before the 4th c. CE;
some additions were probably made later. {PLL p. 26 ¶20; HPL
p. 94} This book appears in the Khuddaka
Nikaya of the Burmese Tipitaka (but not in the Thai or Sri Lankan).
First translated into Sinhala in 1777. †(I.B. Horner, 1963, PTS)
- Paritta
(editor and date unknown). This ancient collection consists of material
excerpted directly from the Tipitaka: twenty-four short suttas and
several brief excerpts, including the three refuges, the precepts, ten
questions for the novice monk, and a review of the thirty-two parts of
the body. In Buddhist countries monks often recite passages from the
Paritta during important ceremonial gatherings (special
full-moon days,
cremation ceremonies, blessings, dedications of new temples, etc.) The
Paritta texts have long been regarded as conferring special powers of
protection upon those who hear or recite them. †(many; see, for example,
The
Book of Protection, by Piyadassi Thera, 1999, BPS)
- Dipavamsa
(author unknown; after 4th c.). The "Island Chronicle." This
book, the first known book written in (and about) Sri Lanka, details the
early Buddhist history of the island, from the Buddha's legendary first
visits through the conversion of the island by Ven. Mahinda (3rd c.
BCE). {HPL p. 53}
- Mahavamsa
(Mahanama; 6th c.). "The Great Chronicle." A history of Sri
Lanka from the first visits by the Buddha up until the turn of the
4th c. The text is based on the Dipavamsa, but
contains new material drawn from the Atthakatha (commentaries).
{PLL p. 36 ¶28} This text has long served as a key reference for
Buddhist historians and scholars. †(W. Geiger & Mabel H. Bode, 1912,
PTS)
- Culavamsa
(various authors). "The Lesser Chronicle." A continuation of the
Mahavamsa, extending from the turn of the
4th c. until the fall of the last Sinhalese king of Kandy (1815).
{PLL p. 44 ¶38} Its contributors were: Dhammakitti (12th c.),
an anonymous author prior to the 18th c., Tibbotuvave
Buddharakkhita (18th c.), and Hiddakuve Sumangala (1877).
Many historians now consider the Culavamsa to be an integral part of the
Mahavamsa, the artificial distinction between the two Chronicles having
been introduced in the late 19th c. by the great Pali scholar Wilhelm
Geiger. {HPL p. 81} †(Mrs. C. Mabel Rickmers, 1929, PTS)
-
Vamsatthappakasini (author unknown; 6th c.).
Commentary of the Mahavamsa. Since the
Mahavamsa itself is an expansion of the shorter
Dipavamsa, the Vamsatthappakasini is usually considered a
sub-commentary (tika). {PLL p. 42 ¶35}
-
Mahabodhivamsa (Upatissa; 11th c.). This account of
the sacred bodhi tree of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, is mostly a
compilation of material from older texts, including the
Mahavamsa. {PLL p. 36-37 ¶29}
This book is venerated in Sri Lanka and "has given rise to well over
fifty subsidiary titles in both Pali and Sinhala." {HPL p. 78}
(Note: the bodhi tree at Anuradhapura continues to be an important
destination for millions of Buddhist pilgrims. This gigantic tree is
said to be a direct descendant of a cutting that was taken from the
original bodhi tree under which the Buddha gained enlightenment, and was
brought (ca. 240
BCE) by Ven. Sister Sanghamitta on a missionary expedition to
Anuradhapura.)
- Thupavamsa
(Vacissara; 12th c.). A chronicle of the Mahathupa (Great
Stupa) in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. {HPL p. 163} This work
is "merely a compilation of pieces from Nidanakatha [the introduction to
the Jatakatthavannana],
Samantapasadika, and
Mahavamsa with its tika [Vamsatthappakasini]."
{PLL p. 41 ¶34}
- Dathavamsa
(Dhammakitti; 13th c.). A poem recounting the early history
of the sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha, from the time of its removal
from the Buddha's funeral pyre until the building of the first temple in
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka (4th c.). {HPL pp. 40-41}
This work is based on material found in the
Mahavamsa along with additions that were "probably culled from local
tradition of Ceylon." {PLL p. 41 ¶34} (Note: The Tooth
Relic -- now enshrined in the Sacred Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, Sri
Lanka -- is still a favorite destination for pilgrims.)
-
Samantakutavannana (Vedehathera; 13th c.).
"Description of the Adam's Peak." A poem in 796 stanzas that deals with
the story of the Buddha's life and the legends of his three visits to
Sri Lanka, including his third visit, during which it is said he left
the print of his left foot on the summit of what is today known as
Adam's Peak. {PLL p. 43 ¶36} (Note: Adam's Peak, in the
central forests of the island, continues to be a celebrated pilgrimage
spot for Sri Lankan Buddhists.) †(A. Hazelwood, 1986, PTS)
-
Hatthavanagalla-viharavamsa
(author unknown; 13th c.). The life story, in prose and
verse, of the Buddhist king Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247-249) of
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. {HPL p. 55} First translated
into Sinhala in 14th c.
-
Saddhamma-sangaha (Dhammakitti Mahasami; Thai; 14th c.).
An outline of the literary and ecclesiastical history of Buddhism,
including the first four councils, the first writing of Tipitaka, and
the writing of the Tikas (sub-commentaries). The source material for
this book comes from the Tipitaka and the Atthakathas. {HPL
p. 129-30}
-
Cha-kesadhatuvamsa (unknown Burmese author). A short history of
the construction of six stupas that enshrine the hair relics that the
Buddha personally gave to six arahants. {HPL pp. 36-37}
- Gandhavamsa
(unknown Burmese author; 19th c.?). A catalogue of ancient
Buddhist commentators and their works. {PLL p. 48 ¶44.5}
- Sasanavamsa
(Paññasamin; Burmese; 19th c.). A history of Buddhism in
India until the third Council, and then in Sri Lanka and other countries
to which Buddhist missions had been sent. The source texts for this work
include the Samantapasadika,
Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa,
and the Burmese chronicles. {PLL p. 49 ¶44} †(B.C. Law,
1952, PTS)
- Jinalankara
(Buddharakkhita; 12th c.). This poem of 278 verses gives an
account of the Buddha's life up until his enlightenment. {PLL
p. 41 ¶34.3}
-
Anagata-vamsa (Mahakassapa of Cola; 12th c.?). The
life story of Metteyya, the next Buddha, told in verse. {HPL
p. 9}
- Jinacarita
(Medhankara; 13th c.). An account of the life of the Buddha,
told in a poem of 472 verses. {HPL p. 64}
- Pajjamadhu
(Buddhapiya Dipankara; 13th c.). A poem of 104 stanzas in
praise of the Buddha's physical beauty and wisdom. {PLL p. 44}
- Jinakalamali
(Ratanapañña; Thai; 16th c.). This account of the life of the
Buddha begins with his birth in a previous life as the Indian King
Sattutapa, and continues through successive lives until his final birth
as Siddhattha Gotama. It also includes descriptions of the Buddha's
visits to Sri Lanka, the establishment of Buddhism there, and the early
rise of Buddhism in Thailand. {HPL p. 65} †(N.A.
Jayawickrama, 1962, PTS)
- Vimuttimagga
(Upatissa; 1st c.). "The Path of Freedom." A short manual
summarizing the path of Buddhist practice. The original Pali text was
long believed to have been lost; for centuries, discussions about the
text therefore relied on a 5th c. Chinese edition. A Pali
edition was published in 1963.
{HPL p. 175-6}
†(Ehara, Soma Thera, and Kheminda Thera, 1967, BPS)
-
Visuddhimagga (Buddhaghosa; 5th c.). "The Path of
Purification." A manual of Buddhist meditation, based on both the Pali
Tipitaka and the ancient Sinhala commentaries. This was Buddhaghosa's
first opus, written at the behest of the elders of the Mahavihara
community "in order to test his abilities prior to entrusting him with
the weighty and responsible task of translating the Sinhal[a]
commentaries into Pali." {EHBC p. 4} The Visuddhimagga's
emphasis on meditation practices that play only an insignificant role in
the suttas (the kasina meditations) fueled a controversy
concerning the role of both
jhana and
vipassana that persists to this day. {BR p.145} †(Pe
Maung Tin, 1923-31, PTS; Ñanamoli Thera, 1956, BPS)
-
Vinayavinicchaya (Buddhadatta; 5th c.). A summary, in
verse form, of the first four books of the Vinaya.
{HPL p. 177}
-
Uttaravinicchaya (Buddhadatta; 5th c.). A summary, in
verse form, of the Parivara, the fifth and final book of the
Vinaya. {HPL p. 167; PLL p. 33 ¶25}
-
Paramatthamañjusa (Dhammapala; 6th c.). Commentary on
the Visuddhimagga. This, the earliest of
all the tikas, "explains in detail the brief references found in the
Visuddhimagga...[,] provides a storehouse of traditional
interpretations" of Dhamma, and provides discussions on Pali grammar.
{HPL p. 111-13}
- Khuddasikkha
(Dhammasiri; after 11th c.) and
Mulasikkha (Mahasamin; after 11th c.). These are
short summaries on monastic discipline, meant to be learned by heart.
{PLL p. 35 ¶27}
-
Upasaka-janalankara (Sihala Acariya Ananda Mahathera; 13th c.).
"A Pali manual dealing with the Buddha's teachings for laymen."
{HPL p. 168}
- Sarasangaha
(Siddhattha; 13th c.). A "manual of Dhamma" in prose and
verse. {HPL p. 141}
- Sandesakatha
and Sima-vivada-vinichaya-katha
(both by an unknown Burmese author; 19th c.). These two works
"throw interesting sidelight on the relation between Ceylon and Burma."
{PLL p. 48 ¶44}
-
Pañcagatidipana (author and date unknown). A poem of 114 stanzas
that describes the five forms of rebirth: in hell, as an animal, as a
hungry shade (peta), as a human, or as a celestial being (deva).{PLL
p. 45 ¶40}
-
Saddhammopayana (author and date unknown). A collection of 629
short verses in praise of the Dhamma. {PLL p. 46 ¶41}
-
Tela-katha-gatha (author and date unknown). "The Oil-Cauldron
Verses." A poem whose 98 stanzas "are ascribed to a Thera [senior monk]
who was condemned to be thrown into a vessel full of boiling oil. He had
been falsely accused of indirectly rendering help in an intrigue of the
wife of King Tissa... The boiling oil cannot injure the Thera and he
pronounces" stanzas that "deal with death and thought of death, of
transience, of suffering, and of the unreality of the soul, etc."
{PLL p. 46 ¶41}
Notes
1. For example,
DN 16,
MN 108, and
Vinaya Cullavagga XI and XII.
[Go back]
2. In the early
decades of the 1st c. BCE in Sri Lanka -- then the hub of
Theravada Buddhist scholarship and monastic training -- several forces
combined that would threaten the continuity of the ancient oral tradition
by which the Pali Tipitaka had been passed down from one generation of
monks to the next. A rebellion against the king and invasions from south
India forced many monks to flee the island. At the same time a famine of
unprecedented proportions descended on the island for a dozen years. The
commentaries recount heroic stories of monks who, fearing that the
treasure of the Tipitaka might forever be lost, retreated to the relative
safety of the south coast, where they survived only on roots and leaves,
reciting the texts amongst themselves day and night. The continuity of the
Tipitaka hung by a thread: at one point only one monk was able to recite
the Niddesa. {PLL p. 76}
[Go back]
3. The commentary
tells how Kisagotami, distraught by the death of her son, wandered in vain
from door to door with his corpse in her arms, in search of a cure for his
ailment. Finally she met the Buddha, who promised a cure if she would
simply bring back a few mustard seeds from any household that had never
been touched by death. Unable to find any such household, she soon came to
her senses, understood the inevitability of death, and was at last able to
let go of both the corpse and her grief. (The full story of Kisagotami's
life is retold in Great Disciples of the Buddha, Bhikkhu Bodhi, ed.
(Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1997).)
[Go back]
4. See BR p.145.
[Go back]
5. See "'When
you know for yourselves...': The Authenticity of the Pali Suttas," by
Thanissaro Bhikkhu.
[Go back]
The Buddhist Religion (fourth
edition), ("BR") by Richard H. Robinson and Willard L. Johnson (Belmont,
California: Wadsworth, 1997)
Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon,
("EHBC") by E.W. Adikaram (Dehiwala, Sri Lanka: The Buddhist Cultural
Centre, 1994)
Guide to Tipitaka, by U Ko Lay
(New Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1990)
Handbook of Pali Literature,
("HPL") by Somapala Jayawardhana (Colombo, Sri Lanka: Karunaratne &
Sons, 1994)
Pali Literature and Language,
("PLL") by Wilhelm Geiger (New Delhi: Oriental Books, 1978)
Pali Text Society's List of Issues
(1994-95) by the Pali Text Society (Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1994)
The Questions of King Milinda: An
Abridgement of the Milindapañha, ("QKM") by N.K.G. Mendis, ed.
(Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993).
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